The science and technology of ultracapacitors are reviewed for a number of electrode materials, including carbon, mixed metal oxides, and conducting polymers. More work has been done using microporous carbons than with the other materials and most of the commercially available devices use carbon electrodes and an organic electrolytes. The energy density of these devices is 3¯5 Wh/kg with a power density of 300¯500 W/kg for high efficiency (90¯95%) charge/discharges. Projections of future developments using carbon indicate that energy densities of 10 Wh/kg or higher are likely with power densities of 1¯2 kW/kg. A key problem in the fabrication of these advanced devices is the bonding of the thin electrodes to a current collector such the contact resistance is less than 0.1 cm2. Special attention is given in the paper to comparing the power density characteristics of ultracapacitors and batteries. The comparisons should be made at the same charge/discharge efficiency.

Ultracapacitors: Why, How, and Where is the Technology

Due to increasing concerns about global warming, greenhouse gas emissions, and the depletion of fossil fuels, the electric vehicles (EVs) receive massive popularity due to their performances and efficiencies in recent decades. EVs have already been widely accepted in the automotive industries considering the most promising replacements in reducing CO2 emissions and global environmental issues. Lithium-ion batteries have attained huge attention in EVs application due to their lucrative features such as lightweight, fast charging, high energy density, low self-discharge and long lifespan. This paper comprehensively reviews the lithium-ion battery state of charge (SOC) estimation and its management system towards the sustainable future EV applications. The significance of battery management system (BMS) employing lithium-ion batteries is presented, which can guarantee a reliable and safe operation and assess the battery SOC. The review identifies that the SOC is a crucial parameter as it signifies the remaining available energy in a battery that provides an idea about charging/discharging strategies and protect the battery from overcharging/over discharging. It is also observed that the SOC of the existing lithium-ion batteries have a good contribution to run the EVs safely and efficiently with their charging/discharging capabilities. However, they still have some challenges due to their complex electro-chemical reactions, performance degradation and lack of accuracy towards the enhancement of battery performance and life. The classification of the estimation methodologies to estimate SOC focusing with the estimation model/algorithm, benefits, drawbacks and estimation error are extensively reviewed. The review highlights many factors and challenges with possible recommendations for the development of BMS and estimation of SOC in next-generation EV applications. All the highlighted insights of this review will widen the increasing efforts towards the development of the advanced SOC estimation method and energy management system of lithium-ion battery for the future high-tech EV applications.

A review of lithium-ion battery state of charge estimation and management system in electric vehicle applications: Challenges and recommendations

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Power Electronics Converters Applications And Design

The electric vehicle (EV) technology addresses the issue of the reduction of carbon and greenhouse gas emissions. The concept of EVs focuses on the utilization of alternative energy resources. However, EV systems currently face challenges in energy storage systems (ESSs) with regard to their safety, size, cost, and overall management issues. In addition, hybridization of ESSs with advanced power electronic technologies has a significant influence on optimal power utilization to lead advanced EV technologies. This paper comprehensively reviews technologies of ESSs, its classifications, characteristics, constructions, electricity conversion, and evaluation processes with advantages and disadvantages for EV applications. Moreover, this paper discusses various classifications of ESS according to their energy formations, composition materials, and techniques on average power delivery over its capacity and overall efficiencies exhibited within their life expectancies. The rigorous review indicates that existing technologies for ESS can be used for EVs, but the optimum use of ESSs for efficient EV energy storage applications has not yet been achieved. This review highlights many factors, challenges, and problems for sustainable development of ESS technologies in next-generation EV applications. Thus, this review will widen the effort toward the development of economic and efficient ESSs with a longer lifetime for future EV uses.

Review of energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications: Issues and challenges

Accurate prediction of range of an electric vehicle (EV) is a significant issue and a key market qualifier. EV range forecasting can be made practicable through the application of advanced modelling and estimation techniques. Battery modelling and state-of-charge estimation methods play a vital role in this area. In addition, battery modelling is essential for safe charging/discharging and optimal usage of batteries. Much existing work has been carried out on incumbent Lithium-ion (Li-ion) technologies, but these are reaching their theoretical limits and modern research is also exploring promising next-generation technologies such as Lithium–Sulphur (Li–S). This study reviews and discusses various battery modelling approaches including mathematical models, electrochemical models and electrical equivalent circuit models. After a general survey, the study explores the specific application of battery models in EV battery management systems, where models may have low fidelity to be fast enough to run in real-time applications. Two main categories are considered: reduced-order electrochemical models and equivalent circuit models. The particular challenges associated with Li–S batteries are explored, and it is concluded that the state-of-the-art in battery modelling is not sufficient for this chemistry, and new modelling approaches are needed.

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A review on electric vehicle battery modelling: From Lithium-ion toward Lithium–Sulphur

There are numbers of alternative energy resources being studied for hybrid vehicles as preparation to replace the exhausted supply of petroleum worldwide. The use of fossil fuel in the vehicles is a rising concern due to its harmful environmental effects. Among other sources battery, fuel cell (FC), super capacitors (SC) and photovoltaic cell i.e. solar are studied for vehicle application. Combinations of these sources of renewable energies can be applied for hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) for next generation of transportation. Various aspects and techniques of HEV from energy management system (EMS), power conditioning and propulsion system are explored in this paper. Other related fields of HEV such as DC machine and vehicle system are also included. Various type models and algorithms derived from simulation and experiment are explained in details. The performances of the various combination of HEV system are summarized in the table along with relevant references. This paper provides comprehensive survey of hybrid electric vehicle on their source combination, models, energy management system (EMS) etc. developed by various researchers. From the rigorous review, it is observed that the existing technologies more or less can capable to perform HEV well; however, the reliability and the intelligent systems are still not up to the mark. Accordingly, this review have been lighted many factors, challenges and problems sustainable next generation hybrid vehicle.

Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review

This paper presents the multi-sources energy models and ruled based feedback control algorithm of an
energy management system (EMS) for light electric vehicle (LEV), i.e., scooters. The multiple sources of
energy, such as a battery, fuel cell (FC) and super-capacitor (SC), EMS and power controller, DC machine
and vehicle dynamics are designed and modeled using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The developed control strategies
continuously support the EMS of the multiple sources of energy for a scooter under normal and
heavy power load conditions. The performance of the proposed system is analyzed and compared with
that of the ECE-47 test drive cycle in terms of vehicle speed and load power. The results show that the
designed vehicle’s speed and load power closely match those of the ECE-47 test driving cycle under normal
and heavy load conditions. This study’s results suggest that the proposed control algorithm provides
an efficient and feasible EMS for LEV.

Multi-sources model and control algorithm of an energy management system

Multi-sources model and control algorithm of an energy management system for light electric vehicles

This paper introduces the utilization of selected renewable energy technologies such as solar cell, battery, proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell (FC) and super-capacitors (SCs) in the electrical vehicle industry. Combination of multiple energy resources is imperative to balance the different characteristic of each resource. Concomitantly, the need of an efficient energy management system arises within the industry. Thus, existing system from past and present undergoing research papers are summarized to give a compact overview on the technology and know-how technique to readers. Streszczenie. W artykule zaprezentowano wykorzystanie roznych źrodel energii odnawialnej - baterii slonecznych, baterii z protonową membraną i superkondensatorow w przemyśle motoryzacyjnym. Rozwazano mozliwośc stosowania rownocześnie roznych źrodel w celu zrownowazenia ich charakterystyk. (Technologie energii odnawialnej w przemyśle motoryzacyjnym)

Renewable Energy Technologies and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenges

This paper describes the modelling of the energy management system (EMS) of light vehicles using hybrid multi-power source systems. The hybrid system included a fuel cell (FC), a battery, supercapacitors (SC) and a photovoltaic cell. The battery was used as the primary power source for driving the vehicle. Other sources were used as supplemental power sources for medium range vehicle usage. The control algorithm was developed as a switching mechanism used to trigger between the energy sources based on the drive of the vehicle power system as a means of examining the electrical power flow. The control algorithm was used to manage the switching operation of power supplies for the EMS during light vehicle operation. The results showed that the models were operating efficiently based on the switching control algorithm and management of the energies from various sources. Streszczenie. Opisano modelowaniem system zarządzania energią lekkich pojazdow. W sklad systemu wchodzą: bateria, superkondensator i bateria fotowoltaiczna. Szczegolną uwage zwrocono na mechanizm przelączania miedzy źrodlami energii. (System zarządzania energią w lekkich pojazdach mechanicznych)

F. A. Azidin

Papers

Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review

Multi-sources model and control algorithm of an energy management system

Multi-sources model and control algorithm of an energy management system for light electric vehicles

Renewable Energy Technologies and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenges

Light vehicle energy management system using multi-power sources