This chapter presents an outline of a theory of intergroup conflict and some preliminary data relating to the theory. Much of the work on the social psychology of intergroup relations has focused on patterns of individual prejudices and discrimination and on the motivational sequences of interpersonal interaction. The intensity of explicit intergroup conflicts of interests is closely related in human cultures to the degree of opprobrium attached to the notion of "renegade" or "traitor." The basic and highly reliable finding is that the trivial, ad hoc intergroup categorization leads to in-group favoritism and discrimination against the out-group. Many orthodox definitions of "social groups" are unduly restrictive when applied to the context of intergroup relations. The equation of social competition and intergroup conflict rests on the assumptions concerning an "ideal type" of social stratification in which the salient dimensions of intergroup differentiation are those involving scarce resources.

The social identity theory of intergroup behavior

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Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

INDIVIDUAL PROCESSES IN INTERGROUP BEHAVIOR 3 From Individual to Group Impressions 3 GROUP MEMBERSHIP AND INTERGROUP BEHAVIOR 7 The Scope and Range of Ethnocentrism 8 The Development of Ethnocentrism 9 Intergroup Conflict and Competition 12 Interpersonal and intergroup behavior 13 Intergroup conflict and group cohesion 15 Power and status in intergroup behavior 16 Social Categorization a d Intergroup Behavior 20 Social categorization: cognitions, values, and groups 20 Social categorization a d intergroup discrimination 23 Social identity and social comparison 24 THE REDUCTION FINTERGROUP DISCRIMINATION 27 Intergroup Cooperation and Superordinate Goals " 28 Intergroup Contact. 28 Multigroup Membership and "lndividualizat~’on" of the Outgroup 29 SUMMARY 30

Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations

Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.

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A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.

The study of linguistic variation in social contexts has captured the imaginations of scholars in various social and language-related sciences. The desire to understand the relationship between linguistic and social variables gave rise to the multidisciplinary field of sociolinguistics, which, according to Hymes (1972), has at its heart the study of speech diversity in different social settings. While acknowledging the fact that sociolinguistics has in the last decade made great strides forward by informing us how, when, and where we modulate our speech, some social psychologists of language have nevertheless voiced dissatisfactions with the current state of the art. Reservations expressed by social psychologists have been primarily on theoretical grounds. First, they claim, traditional sociolinguistics has been more descriptive than explanatory, thus lacking power of prediction. Second, sociolinguistics has mainly highlighted correlations between linguistic and large-scale, objectively defined social variables (e.g. SES, age, and sex groupings), thereby downgrading empirically the idea that speakers' own subjective attitudes, perceptions of situations, cognitive and affective dispositions, and the like may interact to determine their speech outputs. Third, social psychologists of language assert that sociolinguistics, in line with its tendency to exclude language from definitions of social and structural variables, cannot entertain fully the idea that language can often assume the role of an independent variable by creating, defining, and negotiating social settings. Exceptions are acknowledged, e.g. Labov (1970), Sankoff (1971) and Scotton (1980). These sociolinguists have attempted to address some of the issues by employing social psychological phenomena such as attitudes, intentions, and motivations as determinants of verbal behavior and by considering some of the creative and negative functions of speech. Some sociolinguists, for their part, acknowledge the contributions that social psychologists of language have made toward (1) predicting and explaining linguistic variation in social contexts, and (2) integrating speakers' feelings, values, attitudes, and perceptions into their research design. Most sociolinguists, however, have not incorporated the findings of the social psychologists

Speech-accommodation theories: a discussion in terms of second-language acquisition

Most people modify their ways of speaking, writing, texting, and e-mailing, and so on, according to the people with whom they are communicating. This fascinating book asks why we 'accommodate' to others in this way, and explores the various social consequences arising from it. Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT), revised and elaborated over the past 40 years, has been applied to a wide range of situations, from families to courtrooms, and from media to hospitals, by means of diverse methodologies in many disciplines, and across numerous languages and cultures. Bringing together a team of experts, this book demonstrates how the theory can help us towards a greater understanding of interpersonal communication in a multitude of contexts. Finally, it examines the principles of the theory, identifying a range of avenues along which research can move forward in future. A fascinating account of how and why we modify our way of speaking, texting, and e-mailing, and so on, according to the people with whom we are communicating. An invaluable resource for those already invoking Communication Accommodation Theory in their work, and for those yet to realize its potential. Furthers our understanding of interpersonal communication, and is of real significance to those studying new applied contexts, from families to courtrooms, and from media to hospitals.

Communication accommodation theory: negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts

Language attitudes as a social process: A conceptual model and new directions

Attitudes towards language variation : social and applied contexts

creasingly higher, the resultant “aging world” will undeniably affect all of us. It is not unrealistic, for example, to envision a world twenty years hence where “older individuals” wield considerably more political power, are more active in the workplace and in universities, and have a much greater stake in the world’s economic output. New attitudes on health care and older people’s roles in education will be forged, and questions will be raised about the fairness of social security and other payments that are taken for granted today. This chapter examines one of these developments: changes in the workplace. Demographic workforce projections for the new millennium paint a mixed picture for older workers. On the positive side, most economists predict future shortages of skilled younger workers (Steinhauser 1998; Walsh and Lloyd 1984), predictions that bode well for older workers who possess advanced job skills. In fact, a recent study by Hall and Mirvis (1994) suggests that the paucity of skilled people in America’s workforce is already a problem for management. In this study, 75 percent of employers interviewed stated that filling jobs for skilled workers was an ongoing problem. Moreover, as the baby boom generation moves into the 50and 60-year-old age brackets, it is likely that there will be a disproportionate number of younger workers to fill the jobs that these baby boomers vacate. This should serve as yet another positive sign for the older individuals of tomorrow who wish to work during their later years. Another school of thought on workplace trends paints a bleaker picture. Economists and academics who adhere to this line of thinking point to the imbalance between supply and demand of jobs today and question how these figures can be turned around in a matter of decades. With 1989 survey poll results showing that roughly 5.4 million older people reported being “ready and willing to work but unable to secure a job” (Louis Harris 6 Ageism in the Workplace: A Communication Perspective Robert McCann and Howard Giles

Howard Giles

Papers

Speech-accommodation theories: a discussion in terms of second-language acquisition

Communication accommodation theory: negotiating personal relationships and social identities across contexts

Language attitudes as a social process: A conceptual model and new directions

Attitudes towards language variation : social and applied contexts

Ageism in the workplace: A communication perspective.