The primary aim of this article is to provide an overview of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) detected in the environment, wildlife, and humans, and recommend clear, specific, and descriptive terminology, names, and acronyms for PFASs. The overarching objective is to unify and harmonize communication on PFASs by offering terminology for use by the global scientific, regulatory, and industrial communities. A particular emphasis is placed on long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, substances related to the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, and substances intended as alternatives to the use of the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids or their precursors. First, we define PFASs, classify them into various families, and recommend a pragmatic set of common names and acronyms for both the families and their individual members. Terminology related to fluorinated polymers is an important aspect of our classification. Second, we provide a brief description of the 2 main production processes, electrochemical fluorination and telomerization, used for introducing perfluoroalkyl moieties into organic compounds, and we specify the types of byproducts (isomers and homologues) likely to arise in these processes. Third, we show how the principal families of PFASs are interrelated as industrial, environmental, or metabolic precursors or transformation products of one another. We pay particular attention to those PFASs that have the potential to be converted, by abiotic or biotic environmental processes or by human metabolism, into long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic or sulfonic acids, which are currently the focus of regulatory action. The Supplemental Data lists 42 families and subfamilies of PFASs and 268 selected individual compounds, providing recommended names and acronyms, and structural formulas, as well as Chemical Abstracts Service registry numbers. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2011;7:513–541. © 2011 SETAC

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Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: Terminology, classification, and origins

http://www.beauty-review.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Perfluoroalkyl-acids-a-review-of-monitoring-and-toxicological-findings.pdf

Perfluoroalkyl Acids: A Review of Monitoring and Toxicological Findings

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Water Analysis: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues

Perfluorooctanesulfonate [PFOS; CF3(CF2)7SO3−] and its acid salts were derived from perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride [POSF; CF3(CF2)7SO2F]. Major product applications were developed using POSF through formation of N-alkylsulfonamides that were used in surfactants, paper and packaging treatments, and surface protectants (e.g., carpet, upholstery, textiles). Depending on the specific functional derivitization or polymerization, these POSF-based products may have degraded or metabolized, to an undetermined degree, to PFOS, a stable and persistent end product that has a widespread presence in the general population (Butenhoff et al. 2006) and wildlife (Houde et al. 2006).

Salts of perfluorooctanoic acid, in particular ammonium perfluorooctanoate (APFO), have been used as surfactants and processing aids in the production of fluoropolymers and fluoro-elastomers. Industrial production of the salts of perfluorooctanoic acid occur through electrochemical fluorination and telomerization. Perfluorooctanoate [PFOA; CF3(CF2)6COO−], the dissociated carboxylate anion, has been measured in humans worldwide but generally at lower nanogram per milliliter concentrations than PFOS (Houde et al. 2006).

In rats, PFOS and PFOA are not metabolized and enter into the enterohepatic circulation (Johnson et al. 1984; Kemper 2003; Kuslikis et al. 1992; Vanden Heuvel et al. 1991). Because of the stability of the carbon–fluorine bond and the high electronegativity of perfluorinated alkyl acids, metabolism would not be favored; thus, perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHS) is also not expected to be metabolized.

Based on the determination of volumes of distribution from single-dose intravenous studies in cynomolgus monkeys, the distributions of PFOS, PFHS, and PFOA are primarily extracellular (Butenhoff et al. 2004; Noker and Gorman 2003a, 2003b). Kerstner-Wood et al. (2003) found PFOS, PFHS, and PFOA to be highly bound in rat, monkey, and human plasma over a concentration range of 1–500 μg/mL. When incubated with human plasma protein fractions, all three compounds were highly bound (99.7 to > 99.9%) to albumin, and showed affinity for β-lipoproteins (95.6, 64.1, and 39.6% for PFOS, PFHS, and PFOA, respectively). Some binding to α - and γ -globulin fractions and minor interactions with transferrin (PFHS and PFOA) were also noted. PFOS and PFOA have been shown to compete for fatty acid binding sites on liver fatty acid binding protein, with PFOS giving the stronger response (Luebker et al. 2002).

The elimination rates of PFOS and PFHS have been studied in male and female cynomolgus monkeys after intravenous dosing (Noker and Gorman 2003a, 2003b) and for PFOS after repeated oral dosing (Seacat et al. 2002). Noker and Gorman (2003a, 2003b) reported mean (± SD) terminal elimination half-lives, ranging from 88 to 146 days (132 ± 13 days for males and 110 ± 26 days for females) for PFOS and 49 to 200 days (141 ± 52 days for males and 87 ± 47 days for females) for PFHS, after intravenous dosing of three male and three female cynomolgus monkeys in separate experiments, with no significant difference between males and females or between the two compounds. Seacat et al. (2002) reported an approximate terminal elimination half-life of 200 days for PFOS in male and female cynomolgus monkeys during 1 year immediately following 6 months of daily oral dosing with either 0.15 or 0.75 mg/kg PFOS.

Elimination rates in species other than the monkey have been determined for PFOS and PFOA. Within 89 days after a single intravenous dose of 14C-PFOS, 30% of the 14C was excreted in the urine and 12% in the feces of male rats (Johnson et al. 1979). For PFOA, significant interspecies differences have been observed (Hundley et al. 2006; Kudo and Kawashima 2003), and differential expression of organic anion transporters in renal proximal tubule cells have been suggested as an explanation for sex differences in the rat (Kudo et al. 2002) and low elimination rates in humans (Andersen et al. 2006).

The purpose of the present study was to estimate the serum elimination half-life of PFOS, PFHS, and PFOA in humans through the long-term follow-up of retired fluoro-chemical production workers. Although these retirees were no longer occupationally exposed, their serum concentrations were expected to be considerably higher than those of the general population.

Half-life of serum elimination of perfluorooctanesulfonate,perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanoate in retired fluorochemical production workers.

The Endocrine Society's first Scientific Statement in 2009 provided a wake-up call to the scientific community about how environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) affect health and disease. Five years later, a substantially larger body of literature has solidified our understanding of plausible mechanisms underlying EDC actions and how exposures in animals and humans-especially during development-may lay the foundations for disease later in life. At this point in history, we have much stronger knowledge about how EDCs alter gene-environment interactions via physiological, cellular, molecular, and epigenetic changes, thereby producing effects in exposed individuals as well as their descendants. Causal links between exposure and manifestation of disease are substantiated by experimental animal models and are consistent with correlative epidemiological data in humans. There are several caveats because differences in how experimental animal work is conducted can lead to difficulties in drawing broad conclusions, and we must continue to be cautious about inferring causality in humans. In this second Scientific Statement, we reviewed the literature on a subset of topics for which the translational evidence is strongest: 1) obesity and diabetes; 2) female reproduction; 3) male reproduction; 4) hormone-sensitive cancers in females; 5) prostate; 6) thyroid; and 7) neurodevelopment and neuroendocrine systems. Our inclusion criteria for studies were those conducted predominantly in the past 5 years deemed to be of high quality based on appropriate negative and positive control groups or populations, adequate sample size and experimental design, and mammalian animal studies with exposure levels in a range that was relevant to humans. We also focused on studies using the developmental origins of health and disease model. No report was excluded based on a positive or negative effect of the EDC exposure. The bulk of the results across the board strengthen the evidence for endocrine health-related actions of EDCs. Based on this much more complete understanding of the endocrine principles by which EDCs act, including nonmonotonic dose-responses, low-dose effects, and developmental vulnerability, these findings can be much better translated to human health. Armed with this information, researchers, physicians, and other healthcare providers can guide regulators and policymakers as they make responsible decisions.

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EDC-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals

PFOA is a peroxisome proliferator (PPAR agonist) and exerts morphological and biochemical effects characteristic of PPAR agonists. These effects include increased beta-oxidation of fatty acids, increases in several cytochrome P-450 (CYP450)-mediated reactions, and inhibition of the secretion of very low-density lipoproteins and cholesterol from the liver. These effects on lipid metabolism and transport result in a reduction of cholesterol and triglycerides in serum and an accumulation of lipids in the liver. The triad of tumors observed (liver, Leydig cell, and pancreatic acinar-cell) is typical of many PPAR agonists and is believed to involve nongenotoxic mechanisms. The hepatocellular tumors observed in rats are likely to have been the result of the activation of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). The tumors observed in the testis (Leydig-cell) have been hypothesized to be associated with an increased level of serum estradiol in concert with testicular growth factors. The mechanism responsible for the acinar-cell tumors of the pancreas in rats remains the subject of active investigation. The mechanism resulting in the hepatocellular tumors in rats (PPARalpha activation) is not likely to be relevant to humans. Similarly, the proposed mechanism for Leydig-cell tumor formation is of questionable relevance to humans. Acinar tumors of the pancreas are rare in humans, and the relevance of the these tumors, as found in rats, to humans is uncertain. Epidemiological investigations and medical surveillance of occupationally exposed workers have not found consistent associations between PFOA exposure and adverse health effects.

John L. Butenhoff

Papers

Half-life of serum elimination of perfluorooctanesulfonate,perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanoate in retired fluorochemical production workers.

The toxicology of perfluorooctanoate.

Subchronic toxicity studies on perfluorooctanesulfonate potassium salt in cynomolgus monkeys.

Sub-chronic dietary toxicity of potassium perfluorooctanesulfonate in rats

Interactions of flurochemicals with rat liver fatty acid-binding protein