The use of head-mounted displays (HMD) for virtual reality (VR) application-based purposes including therapy, rehabilitation, and training is increasing. Despite advancements in VR technologies, many users still experience sickness symptoms. VR sickness may be influenced by technological differences within HMDs such as resolution and refresh rate, however, VR content also plays a significant role. The primary objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the literature on HMDs that report Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) scores to determine the impact of content. User factors associated with VR sickness were also examined. A systematic search was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. Fifty-five articles met inclusion criteria, representing 3,016 participants (mean age range 19.5-80; 41% female). Findings show gaming content recorded the highest total SSQ mean 34.26 (95%CI 29.57-38.95). VR sickness profiles were also influenced by visual stimulation, locomotion and exposure times. Older samples (mean age ≥35 years) scored significantly lower total SSQ means than younger samples, however, these findings are based on a small evidence base as a limited number of studies included older users. No sex differences were found. Across all types of content, the pooled total SSQ mean was relatively high 28.00 (95%CI 24.66-31.35) compared with recommended SSQ cut-off scores. These findings are of relevance for informing future research and the application of VR in different contexts.

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Factors Associated With Virtual Reality Sickness in Head-Mounted Displays: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

The continuous increase in energy consumption by cellular networks requires rethinking their energy efficiency. Current research indicates that one third of operating energy could be saved by reducing the transmission power of base stations. However, this approach requires the introduction of a range of additional equipment containing more embodied energy - consumed by all processes associated with the production of equipment. This problem is addressed first in this article. Furthermore, a new cellular network energy efficiency model with embodied energy is proposed, and optimization between the number of cells and their coverage is investigated. Contrary to previous works, we have found that embodied energy accounts for a significant proportion of total energy consumption and cannot be neglected. The simulation results confirm an important trade-off between operating and embodied energies, which can provide some practical guidelines for designing energy-efficient cellular access networks. The new model considering embodied energy is not limited to just cellular networks, but to other telecommunications, such as wireless local area networks and wired networks.

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Rethinking energy efficiency models of cellular networks with embodied energy

IN 1890 or 1891 the Royal Society appointed a very strong committee, of which Lord Rayleigh was chairman, and it included, among other “able scientific men”, Lord Kelvin, Sir George Stokes, Sir William Abney, and Prof. Michael Foster, to report on the general subject of colour-vision and on the tests proper to be used in con nection with it. Dr. Edridge-Green gave evidence before this committee, stated fully his objections to Holmgren's test, and displayed the methods which he recommended in lieu thereof. His book was published before he gave evidence; and, as his original objections to the Holmgren test are reprinted verbatim in the 1909 edition, it is fair to suppose that no fresh evidence in support of them has been obtained during the intervening time. Besides hearing many witnesses, the committee carried out an extended series of practical investigations, and on April 28, 1892, it unanimously recommended the Holmgren test for adoption by railway companies, ship-owners, and (he Board of Trade. The committee pointed out that variations in the amount of deficiency in colour-perception are numerous, and, “when small, are often difficult to classify”. No one claims for the Holmgren test that it affords a sufficient basis for a minute classification, but it does afford the surest and most convenient means of excluding from certain industries the small number of persons who could not engage in them without danger to the community.

Tests for colour-blindness

Improving a vehicle driver’s performance decreases the damage caused by, and chances of, road accidents. In recent decades, engineers and researchers have proposed several strategies to model and improve driving monitoring and assistance systems (DMAS). This work presents a comprehensive survey of the literature related to driving processes, the main reasons for road accidents, the methods of their early detection, and state-of-the-art strategies developed to assist drivers for a safe and comfortable driving experience. The studies focused on the three main elements of the driving process, viz. driver, vehicle, and driving environment are analytically reviewed in this work, and a comprehensive framework of DMAS, major research areas, and their interaction is explored. A well-designed DMAS improves the driving experience by continuously monitoring the critical parameters associated with the driver, vehicle, and surroundings by acquiring and processing the data obtained from multiple sensors. A discussion on the challenges associated with the current and future DMAS and their potential solutions is also presented.

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A Comprehensive Survey of Driving Monitoring and Assistance Systems.

This paper presents a Fitts' law-based analysis of the user's performance in selection tasks with the Leap Motion Controller compared with a standard mouse device. The Leap Motion Controller (LMC) is a new contact-free input system for gesture-based human-computer interaction with declared sub-millimeter accuracy. Up to this point, there has hardly been any systematic evaluation of this new system available. With an error rate of 7.8 % for the LMC and 2.8% for the mouse device, movement times twice as large as for a mouse device and high overall effort ratings, the Leap Motion Controller's performance as an input device for everyday generic computer pointing tasks is rather limited, at least with regard to the selection recognition provided by the LMC.

Evaluation of the leap motion controller as a new contact-free pointing device.

We present the results of an evaluation of the performance of the Leap Motion Controller with the aid of a professional, high-precision, fast motion tracking system A set of static and dynamic measurements was performed with different numbers of tracking objects and configurations For the static measurements, a plastic arm model simulating a human arm was used A set of 37 reference locations was selected to cover the controller's sensory space For the dynamic measurements, a special V-shaped tool, consisting of two tracking objects maintaining a constant distance between them, was created to simulate two human fingers In the static scenario, the standard deviation was less than 05 mm The linear correlation revealed a significant increase in the standard deviation when moving away from the controller The results of the dynamic scenario revealed the inconsistent performance of the controller, with a significant drop in accuracy for samples taken more than 250 mm above the controller's surface The Leap Motion Controller undoubtedly represents a revolutionary input device for gesture-based human-computer interaction; however, due to its rather limited sensory space and inconsistent sampling frequency, in its current configuration it cannot currently be used as a professional tracking system

An Analysis of the Precision and Reliability of the Leap Motion Sensor and Its Suitability for Static and Dynamic Tracking

Estimating VR Sickness and user experience using different HMD technologies: An evaluation study

Influence of video content type on users’ virtual reality sickness perception and physiological response

IPTV represents a solution for interactive television-like services. As the NGN has gained attention for the IP multimedia service delivery platform, IPTV has been recognized as the way to provide the key value-added services. However, IPTV differs from typical NGN-based voice and data services by the fact that it combines three conceptually unfamiliar (until now) components: streamed video, Web services, and NGN-based service control. Another difference is in the sense of the quality-assured service delivery that in the case of IPTV is much stricter for two reasons: it is more challenging to meet an end user's satisfaction in the case of television services, and there are issues of quality- assured provisioning of real-time multimedia services in an environment that is best-effort in its nature. In this article, possible approaches to NGN- based IPTV services assurance are presented from the QoE and QoS viewpoints. Current environments and an overview of the standardization efforts are given. A proposal for a fully NGN-integrated quality-assured IPTV provisioning model is presented with an associated converged profile structure. The service-aware quality assurance approach is argued. The article investigates further NGN service delivery enhancements for quality-assured provisioning of IPTV services that until now remained unresolved. The objective of this article is to present the design of a realistic quality assurance model, establish the associated framework for NGN-based IPTV services delivery, and contribute to discussions and research activities. At the same time, the conclusions and the proposed models will serve as a framework for future efforts in our laboratory NGN testbed.

IPTV Systems, Standards and Architectures: Part II - Quality-Assured Provisioning of IPTV Services within the NGN Environment

In this paper relationship of perceived virtual reality (VR) sickness phenomenon with different generations of virtual reality head mounted displays (VR HMD) is presented. Action content type omnidirectional video clip was watched by means of four HMDs of different levels of technological matureness, with a 2D monitor used as a reference point. In addition to subjective estimation of VR sickness effects by means of the SSQ questionnaire, psychophysiology of the participants was monitored. Participant’s electrodermal activity, heart rate, skin temperature and respiration rate were measured. Results of the study indicate differences between HMDs in both SSQ score and changes of physiology. Skin conductance was found to be significantly correlated with VR sickness. Mobile HMD did not induce significantly higher levels of VR sickness. Disorientation SSQ was proven to be a useful tool for assessing the VR sickness effects.

Jože Guna

Papers

An Analysis of the Precision and Reliability of the Leap Motion Sensor and Its Suitability for Static and Dynamic Tracking

Estimating VR Sickness and user experience using different HMD technologies: An evaluation study

Influence of video content type on users’ virtual reality sickness perception and physiological response

IPTV Systems, Standards and Architectures: Part II - Quality-Assured Provisioning of IPTV Services within the NGN Environment

Effect of VR technology matureness on VR sickness