Despite the imminent commercial introduction of Li-ion batteries in electric drive vehicles and their proposed use as enablers of smart grids based on renewable energy technologies, an intensive quest for new electrode materials that bring about improvements in energy density, cycle life, cost, and safety is still underway. This Progress Report highlights the recent developments and the future prospects of the use of phases that react through conversion reactions as both positive and negative electrode materials in Li-ion batteries. By moving beyond classical intercalation reactions, a variety of low cost compounds with gravimetric specific capacities that are two-to-five times larger than those attained with currently used materials, such as graphite and LiCoO(2), can be achieved. Nonetheless, several factors currently handicap the applicability of electrode materials entailing conversion reactions. These factors, together with the scientific breakthroughs that are necessary to fully assess the practicality of this concept, are reviewed in this report.

Beyond Intercalation-Based Li-Ion Batteries: The State of the Art and Challenges of Electrode Materials Reacting Through Conversion Reactions

Alloy negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries.

Research to develop alternative electrode materials with high energy densities in Li-ion batteries has been actively pursued to satisfy the power demands for electronic devices and hybrid electric vehicles. This critical review focuses on anode materials composed of Group IV and V elements with their composites including Ag and Mg metals as well as transition metal oxides which have been intensively investigated. This critical review is devoted mainly to their electrochemical performances and reaction mechanisms (313 references).

Li-alloy based anode materials for Li secondary batteries.

High-energy consumption in our day-to-day life can be balanced not only by harvesting pollution-free renewable energy sources, but also requires proper storage and distribution of energy. In this regard, lithium ion batteries are currently considered as effective energy storage devices and involve the most active research. There exist several review articles dealing with various sections of LIBs, such as the anode, the cathode, electrolytes, electrode–electrolyte interface etc. However, the anode is considered to be a crucial component affecting the performance of LIBs as evident from the tremendous amount of current research work carried out in this area. In the last few years, advancements have been focused more on the fabrication of the nanostructured anode owing to its special properties, such as high surface area, short Li+ ion diffusion path length, high electron transportation rate etc. As the work in this area is growing very fast, the present review paper deliberates the recent developments of anode materials on the nanoscale. Different types of anode materials, such as carbon-based materials, alloys, Si-based materials, transition metal oxides, and transition metal chalcogenides, with their unique physical and electrochemical properties, are discussed. Various approaches to designing materials in the form of 0, 1 and 2D nanostructures and their effect of size and morphology on their performance as anode materials in LIBs are reviewed. Moreover, the article emphasizes smart approaches for making core–shell particles, nanoheterostructures, nanocomposites or nanohybrids with the combination of electrochemically active materials and conductive carbonaceous or electrochemically inactive materials to achieve LIBs with high capacity, high rate capability, and excellent cycling stability. We believe the review paper will provide an update for the reader regarding recent progress on nanostructured anode materials for LIBs.

Nanostructured anode materials for lithium ion batteries

Growing market demand for portable energy storage has triggered significant research on high-capacity lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery anodes. Various elements have been utilized in innovative structures to enable these anodes, which can potentially increase the energy density and decrease the cost of Li-ion batteries. In this review, electrode and material parameters are considered in anode fabrication. The periodic table is then used to explore how the choice of anode material affects rate performance, cycle stability, Li-ion insertion/extraction potentials, voltage hysteresis, volumetric and specific capacities, and other critical parameters. Silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and tin (Sn) anodes receive more attention in literature and in this review, but other elements, such as antimony (Sb), lead (Pb), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), bismuth (Bi), and zinc (Zn) are also discussed. Among conversion anodes focus is placed on oxides, nitrides, phosphides, and hydrides. Nanostructured carbon (C) receives separate consideration. Issues in high- capacity research, such as volume change, insufficient coulombic efficiency, and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer stability are elucidated. Finally, advanced carbon composites utilizing carbon nanotubes (CNT), graphene, and size preserving external shells are discussed, including high mass loading (thick) electrodes and electrodes capable of providing load-bearing properties.

High‐Capacity Anode Materials for Lithium‐Ion Batteries: Choice of Elements and Structures for Active Particles

http://atarazanas.sci.uma.es/docs/articulos/16666781.pdf

Electrochemical properties of lead oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis as negative electrodes for lithium secondary batteries

http://www.uco.es/~iq2sagrl/ElecActa03.pdf

Lead-based systems as suitable anode materials for Li-ion batteries

Sn1 − xMoxO2 mixed oxides of low crystallinity have been synthesized by mechanical milling of the starting elements in an air atmosphere at room temperature and investigated as electrode materials for lithium batteries. The oxides were characterized by X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results suggest that the Mo-doped samples are solid solutions with a cassiterite-type structure and Mo in the tetravalent oxidation state. Significant amounts of amorphous silica over the range 12–23% by weight as determined by energy dispersive analysis (EDX), and originating from the agate jar and balls of milling apparatus used for the experiments, were also detected. The compounds were tested as electrodes in secondary lithium batteries. The addition of Mo has two favourable effects, namely: (i) it increases the discharge capacity; and (ii) it improves capacity retention in cells cycled between 1.0 and 0.0 V. The formation of a Li–Mo–O oxide conductive matrix during the electrochemical insertion of lithium may account for this enhanced performance. In this reasoning, the silica present in the samples was assumed to play a minor role based on the stability of the Si–O bond.

/pdf/mechanochemical-synthesis-of-sn1-xmoxo2-anode-materials-for-1baridkyqn.pdf

Mechanochemical synthesis of Sn1 − xMoxO2 anode materials for Li-ion batteries

http://www.biblioteca.uma.es/bbldoc/articulos/16670644.pdf

M. Martos

Papers

Electrochemical properties of lead oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis as negative electrodes for lithium secondary batteries

Lead-based systems as suitable anode materials for Li-ion batteries

Mechanochemical synthesis of Sn1 − xMoxO2 anode materials for Li-ion batteries

Use of amorphous tin-oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis as electrodes in lithium batteries