A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

/pdf/government-printing-office-expands-database-access-3paa9elw22.pdf

Government Printing Office expands database access

The experimental literature on the effects of color on visual search and identification performance was reviewed. Forty-two studies published between 1952 and 1973 were located that gave results which could be used to determine the effectiveness of color codes relative to various types of achromatic codes. Quantitative analyses of these results indicated that color may be a very effective performance factor under some conditions, but that it can be detrimental under others. Tentative conclusions about the nature of these conditions were derived from the results. A guide for design decisions and an indication of knowledge gaps are also provided.

Review and Analysis of Color Coding Research for Visual Displays

Leadership dynamics: a practical guide to effective relationships

Notifications can have reduced interruption cost if delivered at moments of lower mental workload during task execution. Cognitive theorists have speculated that these moments occur at subtask boundaries. In this article, we empirically test this speculation by examining how workload changes during execution of goal-directed tasks, focusing on regions between adjacent chunks within the tasks, that is, the subtask boundaries. In a controlled experiment, users performed several interactive tasks while their pupil dilation, a reliable measure of workload, was continuously measured using an eye tracking system. The workload data was extracted from the pupil data, precisely aligned to the corresponding task models, and analyzed. Our principal findings include (i) workload changes throughout the execution of goal-directed tasks; (ii) workload exhibits transient decreases at subtask boundaries relative to the preceding subtasks; (iii) the amount of decrease tends to be greater at boundaries corresponding to the completion of larger chunks of the task; and (iv) different types of subtasks induce different amounts of workload. We situate these findings within resource theories of attention and discuss important implications for interruption management systems.

Understanding changes in mental workload during execution of goal-directed tasks and its application for interruption management

Human psychological and social adjustment to space is investigated. Studies and experiences bearing on human performance capability, psychological well being, and social organization, as they relate to space, were identified and assessed, and suggestions offered as to where further research could ease the Earth/space transition. Special emphasis was given to the variables of crew size, crew diversity, and mission duration, all of which can be expected to increase in future spaceflight. By providing a conceptual framework in which issues and related information can be integrated, the hope is to aid in discovering those conditions under which future space travelers can flourish.

Living Aloft : Human Requirements for Extended Spaceflight

Publisher Summary This chapter focuses on groups of people in polar camps, submarines, space capsules, and other exotic environments that are defined by the characteristics of isolation, confinement, and risk At the same time that exotic environments are becoming more salient, behavioral research on groups in exotic environments has almost ground to a halt The chapter considers certain barriers to further advancement in which people involved in such groups may view psychological research as useless or counterproductive The exotic environments of yesteryear have changed substantially, and many new exotic environments are available for study Social and organizational psychology has changed immensely, and many new developments can be taken into account The chapter illustrates those two theoretical models, the ecological and the behavioral, that have evolved around isolation and confinement research As group level phenomena are supplemented by organizational level phenomena, open systems theory may be put to good use

Groups in Exotic Environments

Psychology and the resurgent space program.

Focused interviews were conducted with the Apollo astronauts who landed on the moon. The purpose of these interviews was to help define extravehicular activity (EVA) system requirements for future lunar and planetary missions. Information from the interviews was examined with particular attention to identifying areas of consensus, since some commonality of experience is necessary to aid in the design of advanced systems. Results are presented under the following categories: mission approach; mission structure; suits; portable life support systems; dust control; gloves; automation; information, displays, and controls; rovers and remotes; tools; operations; training; and general comments. Research recommendations are offered, along with supporting information.

Interviews with the Apollo lunar surface astronauts in support of planning for EVA systems design

This study investigated the effect of exposure duration on the luminances required to reach absolute, detection, chromatic, and correct-hue thresholds. Dominant wavelengths 642, 584, 521, and 468 nm were investigated by the method of constant stimuli, with 64.5- and 2.5-min-diam stimulus sizes, for a series of nine exposure durations ranging from 5 to 1413 msec. The results show that, for the small stimulus at brief durations, the luminance–exposure-time relationship approaches Bloch’s law for the absolute-, detection-, and chromatic-threshold functions. For the corresponding correct-hue function, and for all thresholds, brief durations, large stimulus, the slope of the function relating luminance to exposure duration is less than that predicted by Bloch’s law. The slopes relating luminance to exposure duration for the long exposures are greater for the small than for the large stimuli. There is a tendency for the two longer wavelengths to be seen at lower luminances than the two shorter wavelengths, for all thresholds and exposures. The extent of the differences among wavelengths changes as a function of the kind of threshold; the greatest difference occurs for the correct-hue threshold. Photochromatic intervals α and β are smallest for the 642-nm stimulus, over the range of durations. At this wavelength, the four thresholds can be described by a single function relating luminance and exposure duration. The largest photochromatic intervals α and β are found for the 521-nm stimulus. The results are discussed in terms of the relative action time among hues and the threshold-tritanopia hypothesis.

Mary M. Connors

Papers

Living Aloft : Human Requirements for Extended Spaceflight

Groups in Exotic Environments

Psychology and the resurgent space program.

Interviews with the Apollo lunar surface astronauts in support of planning for EVA systems design

Luminance Requirements for Hue Perception and Identification, for a Range of Exposure Durations