The interaction of matter and light is one of the fundamental processes occurring in nature, and its most elementary form is realized when a single atom interacts with a single photon. Reaching this regime has been a major focus of research in atomic physics and quantum optics1 for several decades and has generated the field of cavity quantum electrodynamics2,3. Here we perform an experiment in which a superconducting two-level system, playing the role of an artificial atom, is coupled to an on-chip cavity consisting of a superconducting transmission line resonator. We show that the strong coupling regime can be attained in a solid-state system, and we experimentally observe the coherent interaction of a superconducting two-level system with a single microwave photon. The concept of circuit quantum electrodynamics opens many new possibilities for studying the strong interaction of light and matter. This system can also be exploited for quantum information processing and quantum communication and may lead to new approaches for single photon generation and detection.

https://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0407325.pdf

Strong coupling of a single photon to a superconducting qubit using circuit quantum electrodynamics

The electronic and optical properties and the recent progress in applications of 2D semiconductor transition metal dichalcogenides with emphasis on strong excitonic effects, and spin- and valley-dependent properties are reviewed. Recent advances in the development of atomically thin layers of van der Waals bonded solids have opened up new possibilities for the exploration of 2D physics as well as for materials for applications. Among them, semiconductor transition metal dichalcogenides, MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se), have bandgaps in the near-infrared to the visible region, in contrast to the zero bandgap of graphene. In the monolayer limit, these materials have been shown to possess direct bandgaps, a property well suited for photonics and optoelectronics applications. Here, we review the electronic and optical properties and the recent progress in applications of 2D semiconductor transition metal dichalcogenides with emphasis on strong excitonic effects, and spin- and valley-dependent properties.

Photonics and optoelectronics of 2D semiconductor transition metal dichalcogenides

Phase transitions to quantum condensed phases—such as Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC), superfluidity, and superconductivity—have long fascinated scientists, as they bring pure quantum effects to a macroscopic scale. BEC has, for example, famously been demonstrated in dilute atom gas of rubidium atoms at temperatures below 200 nanokelvin. Much effort has been devoted to finding a solid-state system in which BEC can take place. Promising candidate systems are semiconductor microcavities, in which photons are confined and strongly coupled to electronic excitations, leading to the creation of exciton polaritons. These bosonic quasi-particles are 109 times lighter than rubidium atoms, thus theoretically permitting BEC to occur at standard cryogenic temperatures. Here we detail a comprehensive set of experiments giving compelling evidence for BEC of polaritons. Above a critical density, we observe massive occupation of the ground state developing from a polariton gas at thermal equilibrium at 19 K, an increase of temporal coherence, and the build-up of long-range spatial coherence and linear polarization, all of which indicate the spontaneous onset of a macroscopic quantum phase. Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC), a form of matter first postulated in 1924, has famously been demonstrated in dilute atomic gases at ultra-low temperatures. Much effort is now being devoted to exploring solid-state systems in which BEC can occur. In theory semiconductor microcavities, where photons are confined and coupled to electronic excitations leading to the creation of polaritons, could allow BEC at standard cryogenic temperatures. Kasprzak et al. now present experiments in which polaritons are excited in such a microcavity. Above a critical polariton density, spontaneous onset of a macroscopic quantum phase occurs, indicating a solid-state BEC. BEC should also be possible at higher temperatures if coupling of light with solid excitations is sufficiently strong. Demokritov et al. have achieved just that, BEC at room temperature in a gas of magnons, which are a type of magnetic excitation. This paper presents a comprehensive set of experiments in which polaritons are excited in a semiconductor microcavity. Above a critical density of polaritons, massive occupation of the ground state at 19 K is observed and various pieces of experimental evidence point to a spontaneous onset of a macroscopic quantum phase.

Bose-Einstein condensation of exciton polaritons

Cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) systems allow the study of a variety of fundamental quantum-optics phenomena, such as entanglement, quantum decoherence and the quantum–classical boundary. Such systems also provide test beds for quantum information science. Nearly all strongly coupled cavity QED experiments have used a single atom in a high-quality-factor (high-Q) cavity. Here we report the experimental realization of a strongly coupled system in the solid state: a single quantum dot embedded in the spacer of a nanocavity, showing vacuum-field Rabi splitting exceeding the decoherence linewidths of both the nanocavity and the quantum dot. This requires a small-volume cavity and an atomic-like two-level system. The photonic crystal slab nanocavity—which traps photons when a defect is introduced inside the two-dimensional photonic bandgap by leaving out one or more holes—has both high Q and small modal volume V, as required for strong light–matter interactions. The quantum dot has two discrete energy levels with a transition dipole moment much larger than that of an atom, and it is fixed in the nanocavity during growth.

Vacuum Rabi splitting with a single quantum dot in a photonic crystal nanocavity

1. Introduction and overview 2. Film stress and substrate curvature 3. Stress in anisotropic and patterned films 4. Delamination and fracture 5. Film buckling, bulging and peeling 6. Dislocation formation in epitaxial systems 7. Dislocation interactions and strain relaxation 8. Equilibrium and stability of surfaces 9. The role of stress in mass transport.

Thin Film Materials: Stress, Defect Formation and Surface Evolution

We have fabricated photorefractive InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum wells that are sensitive at wavelengths near 1.06 mum for what is believed to be the first time. We have measured four-wave-mixing diffraction efficiency, using a Nd:YAG laser. A maximum diffraction efficiency of 7 x 10(-4) and a cutoff grating period of ~2 mum are obtained.

Photorefractive multiple quantum wells at 1064 nm.

We investigated the effects of post-growth annealing on the photoluminescence (PL) characteristics of InAs/GaAs quantum dots (QDs) grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The onset temperature at which both the peak linewidth and the PL intensity degraded and the blueshift of the ground state emission wavelength occurred was found to depend on both the QD density and the In composition of the capping layer. This behavior is particularly important in view of QD integration in photonic devices. From the knowledge of the dependences of the PL characteristics after annealing on the QD and capping growth conditions, ground state lasing at 1.30 microm could be demonstrated from InAs/GaAs QDs grown by MOCVD. Finally, we compared the laser characteristics of InAs/GaAs QDs with those of InAs/Sb:GaAs QDs, grown according to the antimony-mediated growth technique, and showed that InAs/Sb:GaAs QDs are more appropriate for laser fabrication at 1.3 microm by MOCVD.

Ground state lasing at 1.30 µm from InAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers grown by metal–organic chemical vapor deposition

Optimizing the GaAs capping layer growth of 1.3 μm InAs/GaAs quantum dots by a combined two-temperature and annealing process at low temperatures

Growth of InAs/GaAs quantum dots on Si, Ge/Si and germanium-on-insulator-on-silicon (GeOI) substrates emitting in the 1.3 μm band for silicon photonics

Semi-insulating InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum wells are fabricated by metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy and proton implantation. Two-wave mixing gain and four-wave mixing diffraction efficiency are measured at wavelengths of 0.91–0.94 ?m in the Franz–Keldysh geometry. We observe a large photorefractive effect caused by the excitonic electro-optic effect. The maximum diffraction efficiency reaches ?1.5×10-4.

Masao Nishioka

Papers

Photorefractive multiple quantum wells at 1064 nm.

Ground state lasing at 1.30 µm from InAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers grown by metal–organic chemical vapor deposition

Optimizing the GaAs capping layer growth of 1.3 μm InAs/GaAs quantum dots by a combined two-temperature and annealing process at low temperatures

Growth of InAs/GaAs quantum dots on Si, Ge/Si and germanium-on-insulator-on-silicon (GeOI) substrates emitting in the 1.3 μm band for silicon photonics

Resonant photorefractive effect in InGaAs/GaAs multiple quantum wells.