https://purehost.bath.ac.uk/ws/files/200897/Coley_Building-Environment_2012_ii.pdf

The implications of a changing climate for buildings

Energy retrofits have the potential to reduce building energy consumption and carbon emissions, but face particular challenges when implemented in historic and traditionally constructed buildings. Retrofitting these buildings is a complex balancing act, in which many criteria are balanced against one another in order to achieve continued, long-term use of the building. This article reviews the criteria, analysis methods, and decision-making processes used to assess energy retrofits in historic and traditional buildings. First, the criteria are discussed. While energy consumption and conservation are the dominant criteria, a number of others are also important, including the needs of the building fabric, occupants, and collections, as well as economics, embodied energy, and climate change. Second, several analysis methods for estimating or measuring retrofit performance have emerged as particularly useful for historic and traditional buildings, and these are examined. Third, recent efforts to develop consistent guidance and decision-making processes for selecting retrofits are reviewed. Overall, energy retrofits in these buildings are seen not only as a way to reduce energy consumption, but as a means of preserving them for future generations.

Energy retrofits in historic and traditional buildings: A review of problems and methods

Role(s) of adsorbed water in the surface chemistry of environmental interfaces

Climate change poses serious threats to the protection and preservation of cultural heritage and resources. Despite a high level of scholarly interest in climate change impacts on natural and socio-economic systems, a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of climate change on cultural heritage and resources across various continents and disciplines is noticeably absent from the literature. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic literature review methodology to identify and characterize the state of knowledge and how the cultural heritage and resources at risk from climate change are being explored globally. Results from 124 reviewed publications show that scholarly interest in the topic is increasing, employs a wide range of research methods, and represents diverse natural and social science disciplines. Despite such increasing and diverse interest in climate change and cultural heritage and resources, the geographic scope of research is limited (predominantly European focused). Additionally, we identified the need for future studies that not only focuses on efficient, sustainable adaptation planning options but also documents if, and how, the implementation of cultural heritage and resources adaptation or preservation is taking place. This systematic literature review can help direct scholarly research in climate change and cultural heritage and resource area. Ultimately, we hope these new directions can influence policy-making for preservation and adaptation of cultural heritage and cultural resources globally.

Are cultural heritage and resources threatened by climate change? A systematic literature review

This paper provides a systematic literature review on simplified building models. Questions are answered like: What kind of modelling approaches are applied? What are their (dis)advantages? What are important modelling aspects? The review showed that simplified building models can be classified into neural network models (black box), linear parametric models (black box or grey box) and lumped capacitance models (white box). Research has mainly dealt with network topology, but more research is needed on the influence of input parameters. The review showed that particularly the modelling of the influence of sun irradiation and thermal capacitance is not performed consistently amongst researchers. Furthermore, a model with physical meaning, dealing with both temperature and relative humidity, is still lacking. Inverse modelling has been widely applied to determine models parameters. Different optimization algorithms have been used, but mainly the conventional Gaus–Newton and the newer genetic algorithms. However, the combination of algorithms to combine their strengths has not been researched. Despite all the attention for state of the art building performance simulation tools, simplified building models should not be forgotten since they have many useful applications. Further research is needed to develop a simplified hygric and thermal building model with physical meaning.

https://pure.tue.nl/ws/files/3582164/388540779747400.pdf

Simplified thermal and hygric building models : a literature review

A proposed method to assess the damage risk of future climate change to museum objects in historic buildings

The present study reports results from the large-scale integrated EU project “Climate for Culture”. The full name, or title, of the project is Climate for Culture: damage risk assessment, economic impact and mitigation strategies for sustainable preservation of cultural heritage in times of climate change. This paper focusses on implementing high resolution regional climate models together with new building simulation tools in order to predict future outdoor and indoor climate conditions. The potential impact of gradual climate change on historic buildings and on the vast collections they contain has been assessed. Two moderate IPCC emission scenarios A1B and RCP 4.5 were used to predict indoor climates in historic buildings from the recent past until the year 2100. Risks to the building and to the interiors with valuable artifacts were assessed using damage functions. A set of generic building types based on data from existing buildings were used to transfer outdoor climate conditions to indoor conditions using high resolution climate projections for Europe and the Mediterranean. The high resolution climate change simulations have been performed with the regional climate model REMO over the whole of Europe including the Mediterranean region. Whole building simulation tools and a simplified building model were developed for historic buildings; they were forced with high resolution climate simulations. This has allowed maps of future climate-induced risks for historic buildings and their interiors to be produced. With this procedure future energy demands for building control can also be calculated. With the newly developed method described here not only can outdoor risks for cultural heritage assets resulting from climate change be assessed, but also risks for indoor collections. This can be done for individual buildings as well as on a larger scale in the form of European risk maps. By using different standardized and exemplary artificial buildings in modelling climate change impact, a comparison between different regions in Europe has become possible for the first time. The methodology will serve heritage owners and managers as a decision tool, helping them to plan more effectively mitigation and adaption measures at various levels.

/pdf/climate-for-culture-assessing-the-impact-of-climate-change-4nmlilf5r2.pdf

Climate for Culture: assessing the impact of climate change on the future indoor climate in historic buildings using simulations

Energy conservation in museums using different setpoint strategies: A case study for a state-of-the-art museum using building simulations

The main subject of this thesis is the determination of climate risks to objects in museums on the basis of measured and/or simulated temperature and relative humidity data. The focus is on the quantification of climate related risks for the preservation quality of indoor climate in Dutch museums. Chapter 1 is an introduction of the background of museum indoor climate guidelines. These climate guidelines have developed over many years and are mostly very strict. The Dutch specifications, which differ from the guidelines in other countries, have been investigated. This leads to the research questions that have been examined in this thesis. In chapter 2 the methods of research are discussed. The background of the Dutch building process and the development of systems to improve the indoor climate are provided. 21 museums were selected based on their combination of Quality of Envelope and Level of Control. The measuring method followed in each museum is provided and the analysis tools are discussed. Obviously, the main boundary condition – the Dutch weather – is also described. In chapter 3 the effect of the indoor climate on degradation processes is described. The three most important processes are biological, chemical and mechanical degradation. Indoor climates are described by statistical parameters to provide information such as averages, short time fluctuations and seasonal fluctuations for temperature and relative humidity. The general climate risk assessment method is introduced, which analyzes climate data by determining the percentage of data that fits into each ASHRAE climate class. This method is applied to all museums investigated in chapter 4. It is concluded that the method has limitations: the general climate risk assessment method directly shows risks to objects but risks resulting from a short climate excursion e.g. extreme weather conditions or climate system failure are disregarded. Chapter 5 introduces a new method in which measured or simulated data on temperature and humidity are directly related to risks for objects. Biological, chemical and mechanical damage are assessed for four specific, well defined objects. Now the response time of objects is used to calculate the climate the objects experience, rather than looking at the climate around the objects. Risk analysis determines whether the object is safe, possibly to be damaged or likely to be damaged when subjected to the described climate. This risk analysis consists of 1) comparing climate data to germination and fungal growth isopleths for assessing the amount of fungal growth; 2) determining the average lifetime multiplier in order to estimate chemical degradation; 3) comparing strain in objects to determine whether deformation is elastic or plastic and 4) assessing the number of cycles during a century and determine whether a first crack occurs in the pictorial layer. This specific climate risk assessment method is applied to all museums investigated in chapter 6. Moreover, this method is compared to the previously described general method. It is concluded that this method is easy to use and that it provides more reliable results than the general climate risk assessment method. Chapter 7 uses a computational model to investigate the influence of changes to the building on the preservational properties of the indoor climate. This model calculates the indoor climate for combinations of building type and climate system type, as defined in chapter 2, using weather data. The output is converted into risks to objects, using the methods described in chapter 3 and 5. Firstly, the effect of building adaptations on climate risks and energy use is investigated, such as thicker walls and larger windows. It is concluded that especially the influence of ventilation rate and exterior surface area have a large influence on collection risks. Furthermore, the number of visitors has an effect that cannot be disregarded. Secondly, the influence of set points is researched, both on energy use and climate risks. The climate system tries to achieve a certain target value for temperature and relative humidity: the set point. The choice for this set point value has an influence on the risks for objects. Additionally risks for the building, such as mould growth or wood rot, largely depend on this choice for set points. Simulations in a well defined case show that improving the building envelope (reducing infiltration and increasing insulation) reduces energy use by a factor 8. These changes to the building, however, might interfere with the original character of the building. By making set points for temperature and RH dependent on the outdoor climate – "following the seasons" – and in some cases lower the difference between average indoor and outdoor conditions, energy savings up to 23% are possible. The risks for objects do not increase, on the contrary: in most cases the risk on chemical degradation for objects, which is closely related to indoor temperature, decreases. In chapter 8 it is concluded that a low risk indoor climate can be realized in almost all combinations of Quality of Envelope and Level of Control. In unheated buildings a minimal risk on fungal growth is present; temperature and relative humidity in monumental buildings are usually fairly constant and of little risk. This is also supported by the fact that lots of objects have lasted for centuries in unheated buildings. When heating is added a larger difference in relative humidity between summer and winter appears. This seasonal variation is noticed by most objects (their response time is shorter than a season); moderate risks on mechanical damage are introduced. When also humidification and dehumidification are added, the risks on mechanical damage to objects are reduced. Both local measures and centrally controlled climate systems are able to create a safe indoor climate for the objects. This is, however, dependent on the chosen set points and type of system. Close to a monumental envelope (or even behind double wall constructions) problems might arise due to fungal growth or condensation. Moreover, objects placed close to the envelope might still be exposed to high risks. This effect is largest when a lower Quality of Envelope and a higher Level of Control are combined. A display case or microclimate case usually provides a more stable climate around the object. Risks on mechanical damage are reduced considerably. Even the daily changes caused by a day/night regime or solar radiation seem to have little effect on the objects in a display case. The only exception is when display cases are exposed to heat sources such as halogen lighting: sudden and dramatic changes in temperature might also cause fluctuations in RH. The climate guidelines used until a few years ago were very strict; too strict to apply in most monumental buildings. Risks for most objects are however low. This is a great opportunity: guidelines can become less strict without increasing risks for objects. In addition, there is a large potential for energy savings. Important for risk assessment is also the introduction of new risks by introducing a climate system. A system failure might expose a large part of the collection to a climate that deviates considerably from the normal conditions. This is an extra risk that calls for a proper monitoring and notification system. Safety of objects is for a great part dependent on the human factor: proper management and routine checks are necessary.

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Climate risk assessment in museums degradation risks determined from temperature and relative humidity data

To better predict the preservational qualities of indoor climates in museums, a new method is presented to assess risks to museum objects: the specific risk assessment method. The main difference from existing methods is that the object’s response time is used to convert the measured indoor climate into the climate as experienced by the object. Four typical, well-defined objects are used in the analysis. For these objects four degradation parameters are determined: biological degradation by means of mould growth, chemical degradation by means of the Lifetime Multiplier and mechanical degradation by means of strain in the construction of an object (usually caused by slower changes in relatively humidity (RH) over time) and also by looking at stresses between construction and decorative layers (usually caused by faster changes in RH).
The outcome of this method of risk analysis is a 4-by-4 matrix (objects versus degradation principles) that contains colours (green for ‘safe’, orange for ‘damage possible’ and red for ‘damage likely’). The risk assessment method is applied to measurements arried out in various types of museum buildings in the Netherlands and Belgium, with a wide variety of climate systems. Differences in object risks in all these buildings are shown. It is concluded that the newly proposed risk assessment method is easy to use in the field. It also contains the newest insights in degradation research. In future, it may even be used instead of current climate guidelines such as ASHRAE guidelines.

Mhj Marco Martens

Papers

A proposed method to assess the damage risk of future climate change to museum objects in historic buildings

Climate for Culture: assessing the impact of climate change on the future indoor climate in historic buildings using simulations

Energy conservation in museums using different setpoint strategies: A case study for a state-of-the-art museum using building simulations

Climate risk assessment in museums degradation risks determined from temperature and relative humidity data

Climate risk assessment in museums