Thermoelectric materials are solid-state energy converters whose combination of thermal, electrical, and semiconducting properties allows them to be used to convert waste heat into electricity or electrical power directly into cooling and heating. These materials can be competitive with fluid-based systems, such as two-phase air-conditioning compressors or heat pumps, or used in smaller-scale applications such as in automobile seats, night-vision systems, and electrical-enclosure cooling. More widespread use of thermoelectrics requires not only improving the intrinsic energy-conversion efficiency of the materials but also implementing recent advancements in system architecture. These principles are illustrated with several proven and potential applications of thermoelectrics.

http://engin1000.pbworks.com/f/TE_rev.pdf

Cooling, heating, generating power, and recovering waste heat with thermoelectric systems.

The dimensionless thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) in bismuth antimony telluride (BiSbTe) bulk alloys has remained around 1 for more than 50 years. We show that a peak ZT of 1.4 at 100°C can be achieved in a p-type nanocrystalline BiSbTe bulk alloy. These nanocrystalline bulk materials were made by hot pressing nanopowders that were ball-milled from crystalline ingots under inert conditions. Electrical transport measurements, coupled with microstructure studies and modeling, show that the ZT improvement is the result of low thermal conductivity caused by the increased phonon scattering by grain boundaries and defects. More importantly, ZT is about 1.2 at room temperature and 0.8 at 250°C, which makes these materials useful for cooling and power generation. Cooling devices that use these materials have produced high-temperature differences of 86°, 106°, and 119°C with hot-side temperatures set at 50°, 100°, and 150°C, respectively. This discovery sets the stage for use of a new nanocomposite approach in developing high-performance low-cost bulk thermoelectric materials.

/pdf/high-thermoelectric-performance-of-nanostructured-bismuth-4evuadx0tz.pdf

High-Thermoelectric Performance of Nanostructured Bismuth Antimony Telluride Bulk Alloys

http://absimage.aps.org/image/MAR08/MWS_MAR08-2007-001627.pdf

High Thermoelectric Performance of Nanostructured Bismuth Antimony Telluride Bulk Alloys.

Nanocrystals (NCs) discussed in this Review are tiny crystals of metals, semiconductors, and magnetic material consisting of hundreds to a few thousand atoms each. Their size ranges from 2-3 to about 20 nm. What is special about this size regime that placed NCs among the hottest research topics of the last decades? The quantum mechanical coupling * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: dvtalapin@uchicago.edu. † The University of Chicago. ‡ Argonne National Lab. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 389–458 389

/pdf/prospects-of-colloidal-nanocrystals-for-electronic-and-3dxpyhl3r7.pdf

Prospects of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications

Approximately 90 per cent of the world's power is generated by heat engines that use fossil fuel combustion as a heat source and typically operate at 30-40 per cent efficiency, such that roughly 15 terawatts of heat is lost to the environment. Thermoelectric modules could potentially convert part of this low-grade waste heat to electricity. Their efficiency depends on the thermoelectric figure of merit ZT of their material components, which is a function of the Seebeck coefficient, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity and absolute temperature. Over the past five decades it has been challenging to increase ZT > 1, since the parameters of ZT are generally interdependent. While nanostructured thermoelectric materials can increase ZT > 1 (refs 2-4), the materials (Bi, Te, Pb, Sb, and Ag) and processes used are not often easy to scale to practically useful dimensions. Here we report the electrochemical synthesis of large-area, wafer-scale arrays of rough Si nanowires that are 20-300 nm in diameter. These nanowires have Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity values that are the same as doped bulk Si, but those with diameters of about 50 nm exhibit 100-fold reduction in thermal conductivity, yielding ZT = 0.6 at room temperature. For such nanowires, the lattice contribution to thermal conductivity approaches the amorphous limit for Si, which cannot be explained by current theories. Although bulk Si is a poor thermoelectric material, by greatly reducing thermal conductivity without much affecting the Seebeck coefficient and electrical resistivity, Si nanowire arrays show promise as high-performance, scalable thermoelectric materials.

Enhanced thermoelectric performance of rough silicon nanowires

PbSeTe-based quantum dot superlattice structures grown by molecular beam epitaxy have been investigated for applications in thermoelectrics. We demonstrate improved cooling values relative to the conventional bulk (Bi,Sb) 2 (Se,Te) 3 thermoelectric materials using a n-type film in a one-leg thermoelectric device test setup, which cooled the cold junction 43.7 K below the room temperature hot junction temperature of 299.7 K. The typical device consists of a substrate-free, bulk-like (typically 0.1 millimeter in thickness, 10 millimeters in width, and 5 millimeters in length) slab of nanostructured PbSeTe/PbTe as the n-type leg and a metal wire as the p-type leg.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/297/5590/2229.full.pdf

Quantum dot superlattice thermoelectric materials and devices.

Theoretical predictions of the benefits of three-dimensional quantum confinement have provided motivation for the development of quantum-dot lasers. Such lasers, developed in the case of self-assembled quantum dots, have not been successfully demonstrated with quantum-confined colloidal nanocrystals (NCs). Here, using recently developed NC-titania chemistry, we report the successful development of an optically pumped, NC-based distributed feedback laser, in which the narrow gain profiles of these nanoparticles have been matched with the feedback of a second-order distributed feedback laser. This laser, whose output color can be selected by choosing appropriately sized nanocrystals, operates at 80 K and at room temperature.

Color-selective semiconductor nanocrystal laser

High values of thermoelectric figures of merit ZT, ranging from ZT=1.6 at 300 K to ZT=3 at 550 K, are reported for Bi-doped n-type PbSeTe/PbTe quantum-dot superlattice (QDSL) samples grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). These ZT values were determined by directly measuring Seebeck coefficients and electrical conductivities and using the low lattice thermal conductivity value (∼3.3 mW/cm-K) determined experimentally from measurements of a one-legged thermoelectric cooler. Initial experiments have also shown that high values of ZT (∼1.1 at 300 K) are achievable for complementary Na-doped p-type PbSeTe/PbTe QDSL samples, in which the conduction and valence bands mirror those in the Bi-doped Pb chalcogenides.

Nanostructured thermoelectric materials

Following the experimentally observed Seebeck coefficient enhancement in PbTe quantum wells in Pb1−xEuxTe/PbTe multiple-quantum-well structures which indicated the potential usefulness of low dimensionality, we have investigated the thermoelectric properties of PbSexTe1−x/PbTe quantum-dot superlattices for possible improved thermoelectric materials. We have again found enhancements in Seebeck coefficient and thermoelectric figure of merit (ZT) relative to bulk values, which occur through the various physics and materials science phenomena associated with the quantum-dot structures. To date, we have obtained estimated ZT values approximately double the best bulk PbTe values, with estimated ZT as high as about 0.9 at 300 K.

Thermoelectric quantum-dot superlattices with high ZT

A central challenge in developing quantum computers and long-range quantum networks is the distribution of entanglement across many individually controllable qubits1. Colour centres in diamond have emerged as leading solid-state ‘artificial atom’ qubits2,3 because they enable on-demand remote entanglement4, coherent control of over ten ancillae qubits with minute-long coherence times5 and memory-enhanced quantum communication6. A critical next step is to integrate large numbers of artificial atoms with photonic architectures to enable large-scale quantum information processing systems. So far, these efforts have been stymied by qubit inhomogeneities, low device yield and complex device requirements. Here we introduce a process for the high-yield heterogeneous integration of ‘quantum microchiplets’—diamond waveguide arrays containing highly coherent colour centres—on a photonic integrated circuit (PIC). We use this process to realize a 128-channel, defect-free array of germanium-vacancy and silicon-vacancy colour centres in an aluminium nitride PIC. Photoluminescence spectroscopy reveals long-term, stable and narrow average optical linewidths of 54 megahertz (146 megahertz) for germanium-vacancy (silicon-vacancy) emitters, close to the lifetime-limited linewidth of 32 megahertz (93 megahertz). We show that inhomogeneities of individual colour centre optical transitions can be compensated in situ by integrated tuning over 50 gigahertz without linewidth degradation. The ability to assemble large numbers of nearly indistinguishable and tunable artificial atoms into phase-stable PICs marks a key step towards multiplexed quantum repeaters7,8 and general-purpose quantum processors9–12. An approach for integrating a large number of solid-state qubits on a photonic integrated circuit is used to construct a 128-channel artificial atom chip containing diamond quantum emitters.

Michael Walsh

Papers

Quantum dot superlattice thermoelectric materials and devices.

Color-selective semiconductor nanocrystal laser

Nanostructured thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric quantum-dot superlattices with high ZT

Large-scale integration of artificial atoms in hybrid photonic circuits.