Human skin is a remarkable organ. It consists of an integrated, stretchable network of sensors that relay information about tactile and thermal stimuli to the brain, allowing us to maneuver within our environment safely and effectively. Interest in large-area networks of electronic devices inspired by human skin is motivated by the promise of creating autonomous intelligent robots and biomimetic prosthetics, among other applications. The development of electronic networks comprised of flexible, stretchable, and robust devices that are compatible with large-area implementation and integrated with multiple functionalities is a testament to the progress in developing an electronic skin (e-skin) akin to human skin. E-skins are already capable of providing augmented performance over their organic counterpart, both in superior spatial resolution and thermal sensitivity. They could be further improved through the incorporation of additional functionalities (e.g., chemical and biological sensing) and desired properties (e.g., biodegradability and self-powering). Continued rapid progress in this area is promising for the development of a fully integrated e-skin in the near future.

25th Anniversary Article: The Evolution of Electronic Skin (E-Skin): A Brief History, Design Considerations, and Recent Progress

Surface modification of inorganic nanoparticles for development of organic–inorganic nanocomposites—A review

Progress in preparation, processing and applications of polyaniline

The gas sensors fabricated by using conducting polymers such as polyaniline (PAni), polypyrrole (PPy) and poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) as the active layers have been reviewed. This review discusses the sensing mechanism and configurations of the sensors. The factors that affect the performances of the gas sensors are also addressed. The disadvantages of the sensors and a brief prospect in this research field are discussed at the end of the review.

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Gas Sensors Based on Conducting Polymers

Polymers in sensor applications

Green approach for hierarchical nanostructured Ag-ZnO and their photocatalytic performance under sunlight

Studies on chemically synthesized soluble acrylic acid doped polyaniline

Polyaniline (PAni) as well as its substituted derivatives such as poly( o -toluidine) (Po-Tol), poly( o -anisidine) (Po-Anis), poly( N -methyl aniline) (PNMA), poly( N -ethyl aniline) (PNEA), poly(2,3 dimethyl aniline) (P2,3-DMA), poly(2,5 dimethyl aniline) (P2,5-DMA) and poly(diphenyl amine) (PDPA) were found to be sensitive to different alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and heptanol vapours A negative change in resistance was observed upon exposing the polymers to methanol, ethanol or propanol vapours, whereas, a reverse trend has been observed for butanol and heptanol vapours Although, the magnitude of change in resistance was found to be very high in many cases: poor response time was observed for most of the polymers Rapid responses were exhibited only by P2,3-DMA and PAni for methanol and ethanol, respectively High sensitivity value (>80%) have been obtained for saturated methanol vapours compared to other alcohols in all polymers Further, measurable response (sensitivity ∼60%) has been obtained at lowest alcohol concentration of ∼3000 ppm with extended switching time The results are explained on the basis of vapour induced change in the crystallinity of the polymer The extent of change was found to be governed by the chain length of the alcohol and its chemical nature

Polyaniline and its substituted derivatives as sensor for aliphatic alcohols

Nanowires of silver–polyaniline nanocomposite synthesized via in situ polymerization and its novel functionality as an antibacterial agent

Spectroscopic [UV–visible and Fourier transform IR (FTIR)] and thermal properties of chemically synthesized polyanilines are found to be affected by varying the protonation media (acetic, citric, oxalic, and tartaric acid). The optical spectra show the presence of a greater fraction of fully oxidized insulating pernigraniline phase in polyaniline doped with acetic acid. In contrast, the selectivity in the formation of the conducting phase is higher in oxalic acid as a protonic acid media. The FTIR spectra of these polymers reveal a higher ratio of the relative intensities of the quinoid to benzenoid ring modes in acetic acid doped polyaniline. Scanning electron micrographs revealed a sponge-like structure derived from the aggregation of the small granules in acetic acid and oxalic acid doped polyaniline. A three-step decomposition pattern is observed in all the polymers, regardless of the protonic acid used for the doping. The second step loss related to the loss of dopant is found to be higher in the oxalic acid doped polymer. In accordance with these results the conductivity is also found to be higher in oxalic acid doped material. The temperature dependent conductivity measurements show the thermal activated behavior in all the polymers. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 2043–2049, 2004

Milind V. Kulkarni

Papers

Green approach for hierarchical nanostructured Ag-ZnO and their photocatalytic performance under sunlight

Studies on chemically synthesized soluble acrylic acid doped polyaniline

Polyaniline and its substituted derivatives as sensor for aliphatic alcohols

Nanowires of silver–polyaniline nanocomposite synthesized via in situ polymerization and its novel functionality as an antibacterial agent

Synthesis and characterization of polyaniline doped with organic acids