Surface plasmons are waves that propagate along the surface of a conductor. By altering the structure of a metal's surface, the properties of surface plasmons--in particular their interaction with light--can be tailored, which offers the potential for developing new types of photonic device. This could lead to miniaturized photonic circuits with length scales that are much smaller than those currently achieved. Surface plasmons are being explored for their potential in subwavelength optics, data storage, light generation, microscopy and bio-photonics.

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Surface plasmon subwavelength optics

Fundamentals of Plasmonics.- Electromagnetics of Metals.- Surface Plasmon Polaritons at Metal / Insulator Interfaces.- Excitation of Surface Plasmon Polaritons at Planar Interfaces.- Imaging Surface Plasmon Polariton Propagation.- Localized Surface Plasmons.- Electromagnetic Surface Modes at Low Frequencies.- Applications.- Plasmon Waveguides.- Transmission of Radiation Through Apertures and Films.- Enhancement of Emissive Processes and Nonlinearities.- Spectroscopy and Sensing.- Metamaterials and Imaging with Surface Plasmon Polaritons.- Concluding Remarks.

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Plasmonics: Fundamentals and Applications

Surface plasmons (SPs) are coherent oscillations of conduction electrons on a metal surface excited by electromagnetic radiation at a metal -dielectric interface. The growing field of research on such light -metal interactions is known as ‘plasmonics’. 1-3 This branch of research has attracted much attention due to its potential applications in miniaturized optical devices, sensors, and photonic circuits as well as in medical diagnostics and therapeutics. 4-8

Nanostructured plasmonic sensors.

Triangular silver nanoparticles (∼100 nm wide and 50 nm high) have remarkable optical properties. In particular, the peak extinction wavelength, λmax of their localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) spectrum is unexpectedly sensitive to nanoparticle size, shape, and local (∼10−30 nm) external dielectric environment. This sensitivity of the LSPR λmax to the nanoenvironment has allowed us to develop a new class of nanoscale affinity biosensors. The essential characteristics and operational principles of these LSPR nanobiosensors will be illustrated using the well-studied biotin−streptavidin system. Exposure of biotin-functionalized Ag nanotriangles to 100 nM streptavidin (SA) caused a 27.0 nm red-shift in the LSPR λmax. The LSPR λmax shift, ΔR/ΔRmax, versus [SA] response curve was measured over the concentration range 10-15 M < [SA] < 10-6 M. Comparison of the data with the theoretical normalized response expected for 1:1 binding of a ligand to a multivalent receptor with different sites but invariant af...

A nanoscale optical biosensor: sensitivity and selectivity of an approach based on the localized surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy of triangular silver nanoparticles.

Noble metal nanoparticles are capable of confining resonant photons in such a manner as to induce coherent surface plasmon oscillation of their conduction band electrons, a phenomenon leading to two important properties. Firstly, the confinement of the photon to the nanoparticle's dimensions leads to a large increase in its electromagnetic field and consequently great enhancement of all the nanoparticle's radiative properties, such as absorption and scattering. Moreover, by confining the photon's wavelength to the nanoparticle's small dimensions, there exists enhanced imaging resolving powers, which extend well below the diffraction limit, a property of considerable importance in potential device applications. Secondly, the strongly absorbed light by the nanoparticles is followed by a rapid dephasing of the coherent electron motion in tandem with an equally rapid energy transfer to the lattice, a process integral to the technologically relevant photothermal properties of plasmonic nanoparticles. Of all the possible nanoparticle shapes, gold nanorods are especially intriguing as they offer strong plasmonic fields while exhibiting excellent tunability and biocompatibility. We begin this review of gold nanorods by summarizing their radiative and nonradiative properties. Their various synthetic methods are then outlined with an emphasis on the seed-mediated chemical growth. In particular, we describe nanorod spontaneous self-assembly, chemically driven assembly, and polymer-based alignment. The final section details current studies aimed at applications in the biological and biomedical fields.

Gold Nanorods: From Synthesis and Properties to Biological and Biomedical Applications

We have developed a simple, fast, and flexible technique to measure optical scattering spectra of individual metallic nanoparticles. The particles are placed in an evanescent field produced by total internal reflection of light from a halogen lamp in a glass prism. The light scattered by individual particles is collected using a conventional microscope and is spectrally analyzed by a nitrogen-cooled charge-coupled-device array coupled to a spectrometer. This technique is employed to measure the effect of particle diameter on the dephasing time of the particle plasmon resonance in gold nanoparticles. We also demonstrate the use of this technique for measurements in liquids, which is important for the potential application of particle plasmons in chemical or biological nanosensors.

Spectroscopy of single metallic nanoparticles using total internal reflection microscopy

Using a mixed type-I/type-II GaAs/AlAs multiple-quantum-well sample, we have demonstrated an optically controllable and tunable terahertz (THz) filter. Long-lived electron–hole pairs in the quantum wells allow for efficient THz attenuation over a large THz spot size (2 mm) for extremely low optical cw power. This sample can also be used as an optically tunable THz phase shifter. The optically induced change of the GaAs quantum wells from a dielectric to a conducting material leads to the observed attenuation and the shifting of the THz wave forms.

An optically controllable terahertz filter

The mesoscopic structure of water has long been a subject of discussion. We postulate that, on the mesoscopic scale, liquid water forms nm-size ice-like crystals and that his structure is responsible for absorption in the THz-frequency range. However, until the recent development of Thz-time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), it was difficult to determine the optical constants in this frequency range with a good signal-to-noise ratio and hence to study the absorption properties of water. Here we report on the optical properties of water in the frequency range 0.05-1.4 THz and discuss the mesoscopic structure of water. We use THz-TDS based on photoconductive dipole antennas gated by a 150 femtosecond laser pulses to generate and detect the THz- frequency pulses. A new theoretical approach is also presented which were use to explain the absorption behavior in the measured THz frequency range. In this theory, molecular plasma oscillations of H3O2 complexes, that are distinctly separate from the H5O2+ complexes which form an underlying crystalline lattice, are assumed to be responsible for absorption in the THz- frequency range. This model provides good agreement to our data.© (1999) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

THz spectroscopy of polar liquids

With the development of fast and efficient THz imaging using THz-time domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), it has become possible to image biological samples in this frequency range. Such imaging studies are complementary to studies in other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, because they convey different information due to the fact that materials exhibit different properties in the THz frequency range than, for example, in the optical. There are many advantages of using THz-TDS. Some of these include that this technique is not damaging to tissue since the THz energy and intensity are very low. In addition THz-TDS can be used for in-situ measurements, a complete THz-system can be made portable, and the technique is very sensitive to water content as well as density and chemical fluctuations in a biological sample. In this paper, we will discuss the following topics. A typical THz-TDS experimental setup for generation and detection of THz waveforms and configured for THz-imaging is presented. This section contains a brief discussion of both the generation and detection process using photoconducting (also known as Auston) switches. Then, we give three examples in which imaging on biological samples can be useful and present our experimental results on these materials using THz-TDS. First, we examine the wood density variations which occur over the period of a tree’s life and which are manifest by imaging the cross sections of tree trunks in the THz frequency range. Second, we measure the increase in the water content of a leaf of drought stressed plants after rewatering. Third we investigate the fast water transport that occurs in mimosa after mechanical stimulus. Forth, we explore the potential of THz imaging for medical diagnostics by investigating the larynx of a pig which has been dehydrated and embedded in wax.

THz Imaging Of Biological Samples

We have demonstrated a low power, optically-controllable, THz attenuator capable of high contrast ratios using a mixed type-I/type-II quantum well sample. When high free-carrier densities are optically excited in the quantum wells by a cw-laser, the transmitted THz intensity can be controllably reduced. Normally in quantum well samples high carrier densities cannot be achieved using low power excitation densities, because the carrier lifetime is so short. This is not the case for out sample which consists of 20 periods of a narrow and a wide GaAs well. After electron-hole pairs are created via optical excitation in the narrow well, they are separated in space, because the electronics are rapidly transferred into the wide well via an x-valley in the barrier material. The carrier lifetime at low sample temperatures i therefore extremely long, 0.48 ms, leading to high carrier densities. Using an optical excitation power of 2.1 mW from a cw-HeNe laser, the transmitted THz intensity can be reduced by 60 percent.

N. E. Hecker

Papers

Spectroscopy of single metallic nanoparticles using total internal reflection microscopy

An optically controllable terahertz filter

THz spectroscopy of polar liquids

THz Imaging Of Biological Samples

Low-power optically controllable THz attenuator