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Modern Applied Statistics With S

When people encounter problems in translating their goals into action (e.g., failing to get started, becoming distracted, or falling into bad habits), they may strategically call on automatic processes in an attempt to secure goal attainment. This can be achieved by plans in the form of implementation intentions that link anticipated critical situations to goal-directed responses ("Whenever situation x arises, I will initiate the goal-directed response y!"). Implementation intentions delegate the control of goal-directed responses to anticipated situational cues, which (when actually encountered) elicit these responses automatically. A program of research demonstrates that implementation intentions further the attainment of goals, and it reveals the underlying processes.

/pdf/implementation-intentions-strong-effects-of-simple-plans-5a7euxxbxr.pdf

Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.

I. the origin of species by means of natural selection

Conditioned fear responses to a tone previously paired with a shock diminish if the tone is repeatedly presented without the shock, a process known as extinction. Since Pavlov it has been hypothesized that extinction does not erase conditioning, but forms a new memory. Destruction of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex, which consists of infralimbic and prelimbic cortices, blocks recall of fear extinction, indicating that medial prefrontal cortex might store long-term extinction memory. Here we show that infralimbic neurons recorded during fear conditioning and extinction fire to the tone only when rats are recalling extinction on the following day. Rats that froze the least showed the greatest increase in infralimbic tone responses. We also show that conditioned tones paired with brief electrical stimulation of infralimbic cortex elicit low freezing in rats that had not been extinguished. Thus, stimulation resembling extinction-induced infralimbic tone responses is able to simulate extinction memory. We suggest that consolidation of extinction learning potentiates infralimbic activity, which inhibits fear during subsequent encounters with fear stimuli.

Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction

What are the elements of early vision? This question might be taken to mean, What are the fundamental atoms of vision?—and might be variously answered in terms ofsuch candidate structures as edges, peaks, corners, and so on. In this chapter we adopt a rather different point of view and ask the question, What are the fundamentalsubstances of vision? This distinction is important becausewe wish to focus on the first steps in extraction of visualinformation. At this level it is premature to talk aboutdiscrete objects, even such simple ones as edges and corners.There is general agreement that early vision involvesmeasurements of a number of basic image properties in-cluding orientation, color, motion, and so on. Figure l.lshows a caricature (in the style of Neisser, 1976), of the sort of architecture that has become quite popular as a model for both human and machine vision. The first stageof processing involves a set of parallel pathways, eachdevoted to one particular-visual property. We propose that the measurements of these basic properties be con-sidered as the elements of early vision. We think of earlyvision as measuring the amounts of various kinds of vi-sual "substances" present in the image (e.g., redness orrightward motion energy). In other words, we are inter- ested in how early vision measures “stuff” rather than in how it labels “things.”What, then, are these elementary visual substances?Various lists have been compiled using a mixture of intui-tion and experiment. Electrophysiologists have describedneurons in striate cortex that are selectively sensitive tocertain visual properties; for reviews, see Hubel (1988) and DeValois and DeValois (1988). Psychophysicists haveinferred the existence of channels that are tuned for cer- tain visual properties; for reviews, see Graham (1989), Olzak and Thomas (1986), Pokorny and Smith (1986), and Watson (1986). Researchers in perception have foundaspects of visual stimuli that are processed pre-attentive- ly (Beck, 1966; Bergen & Julesz, 1983; Julesz & Bergen,

/pdf/the-plenoptic-function-and-the-elements-of-early-vision-320sbi9q60.pdf

The Plenoptic Function and the Elements of Early Vision

Octopus, squid and cuttlefish are renowned for rapid adaptive coloration that is used for a wide range of communication and camouflage. Structural coloration plays a key role in augmenting the skin patterning that is produced largely by neurally controlled pigmented chromatophore organs. While most iridescence and white scattering is produced by passive reflectance or diffusion, some iridophores in squid are actively controlled via a unique cholinergic, non-synaptic neural system. We review the recent anatomical and experimental evidence regarding the mechanisms of reflection and diffusion of light by the different cell types (iridophores and leucophores) of various cephalopod species. The structures that are responsible for the optical effects of some iridophores and leucophores have recently been shown to be proteins. Optical interactions with the overlying pigmented chromatophores are complex, and the recent measurements are presented and synthesized. Polarized light reflected from iridophores can be passed through the chromatophores, thus enabling the use of a discrete communication channel, because cephalopods are especially sensitive to polarized light. We illustrate how structural coloration contributes to the overall appearance of the cephalopods during intra- and interspecific behavioural interactions including camouflage.

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsif.2008.0366.focus

Mechanisms and behavioural functions of structural coloration in cephalopods

http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu3/stuartfox2003.pdf

Conspicuous males suffer higher predation risk: visual modelling and experimental evidence from lizards

Reef fishes present the observer with the most diverse and stunning assemblage of animal colours anywhere on earth. The functions of some of these colours and their combinations are examined using new non-subjective spectrophotometric measurements of the colours of fishes and their habitat. Conclusions reached are as follows: (i) the spectra of colours in high spatial frequency patterns are often well designed to be very conspicuous to a colour vision system at close range but well camouflaged at a distance; (ii) blue and yellow, the most frequently used colours in reef fishes, may be good for camouflage or communication depending on the background they are viewed against; and (iii) reef fishes use a combination of colour and behaviour to regulate their conspicuousness and crypsis.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/3066654.pdf

Communication and camouflage with the same 'bright' colours in reef fishes

Research on sensory processing or the way animals see, hear, smell, taste, feel and electrically and magnetically sense their environment has advanced a great deal over the last fifteen years. This book discusses the most important themes that have emerged from recent research and provides a summary of likely future directions. The book starts with two sections on the detection of sensory signals over long and short ranges by aquatic animals, covering the topics of navigation, communication, and finding food and other localized sources. The next section, the co-evolution of signal and sense, deals with how animals decide whether the source is prey, predator or mate by utilizing receptors that have evolved to take full advantage of the acoustical properties of the signal. Organisms living in the deep-sea environment have also received a lot of recent attention, so the next section deals with visual adaptations to limited light environments where sunlight is replaced by bioluminescence and the visual system has undergone changes to optimize light capture and sensitivity. The last section on central co-ordination of sensory systems covers how signals are processed and filtered for use by the animal. This book will be essential reading for all researchers and graduate students interested in sensory systems.

Sensory Processing in Aquatic Environments

A major goal of evolutionary biology is to unravel the molecular genetic mechanisms that underlie functional diversification and adaptation. We investigated how changes in gene regulation and coding sequence contribute to sensory diversification in two replicate radiations of cichlid fishes. In the clear waters of Lake Malawi, differential opsin expression generates diverse visual systems, with sensitivities extending from the ultraviolet to the red regions of the spectrum. These sensitivities fall into three distinct clusters and are correlated with foraging habits. In the turbid waters of Lake Victoria, visual sensitivity is constrained to longer wavelengths, and opsin expression is correlated with ambient light. In addition to regulatory changes, we found that the opsins coding for the shortest- and longest-wavelength visual pigments have elevated numbers of potentially functional substitutions. Thus, we present a model of sensory evolution in which both molecular genetic mechanisms work in concert. Changes in gene expression generate large shifts in visual pigment sensitivity across the collective opsin spectral range, but changes in coding sequence appear to fine-tune visual pigment sensitivity at the short- and long-wavelength ends of this range, where differential opsin expression can no longer extend visual pigment sensitivity.

/pdf/the-eyes-have-it-regulatory-and-structural-changes-both-4x04bhtqc5.pdf

N. Justin Marshall

Papers

Mechanisms and behavioural functions of structural coloration in cephalopods

Conspicuous males suffer higher predation risk: visual modelling and experimental evidence from lizards

Communication and camouflage with the same 'bright' colours in reef fishes

Sensory Processing in Aquatic Environments

The eyes have it: regulatory and structural changes both underlie cichlid visual pigment diversity.