This critical review shows the basis of photocatalytic water splitting and experimental points, and surveys heterogeneous photocatalyst materials for water splitting into H2 and O2, and H2 or O2 evolution from an aqueous solution containing a sacrificial reagent Many oxides consisting of metal cations with d0 and d10 configurations, metal (oxy)sulfide and metal (oxy)nitride photocatalysts have been reported, especially during the latest decade The fruitful photocatalyst library gives important information on factors affecting photocatalytic performances and design of new materials Photocatalytic water splitting and H2 evolution using abundant compounds as electron donors are expected to contribute to construction of a clean and simple system for solar hydrogen production, and a solution of global energy and environmental issues in the future (361 references)

Heterogeneous photocatalyst materials for water splitting

Energy harvested directly from sunlight offers a desirable approach toward fulfilling, with minimal environmental impact, the need for clean energy. Solar energy is a decentralized and inexhaustible natural resource, with the magnitude of the available solar power striking the earth’s surface at any one instant equal to 130 million 500 MW power plants.1 However, several important goals need to be met to fully utilize solar energy for the global energy demand. First, the means for solar energy conversion, storage, and distribution should be environmentally benign, i.e. protecting ecosystems instead of steadily weakening them. The next important goal is to provide a stable, constant energy flux. Due to the daily and seasonal variability in renewable energy sources such as sunlight, energy harvested from the sun needs to be efficiently converted into chemical fuel that can be stored, transported, and used upon demand. The biggest challenge is whether or not these goals can be met in a costeffective way on the terawatt scale.2

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/cr1002326

Solar Water Splitting Cells

2.3. Evaluation of Photocatalytic Water Splitting 6507 2.3.1. Photocatalytic Activity 6507 2.3.2. Photocatalytic Stability 6507 3. UV-Active Photocatalysts for Water Splitting 6507 3.1. d0 Metal Oxide Photocatalyts 6507 3.1.1. Ti-, Zr-Based Oxides 6507 3.1.2. Nb-, Ta-Based Oxides 6514 3.1.3. W-, Mo-Based Oxides 6517 3.1.4. Other d0 Metal Oxides 6518 3.2. d10 Metal Oxide Photocatalyts 6518 3.3. f0 Metal Oxide Photocatalysts 6518 3.4. Nonoxide Photocatalysts 6518 4. Approaches to Modifying the Electronic Band Structure for Visible-Light Harvesting 6519

Semiconductor-based Photocatalytic Hydrogen Generation

Jenny Schneider,*,† Masaya Matsuoka,‡ Masato Takeuchi,‡ Jinlong Zhang, Yu Horiuchi,‡ Masakazu Anpo,‡ and Detlef W. Bahnemann*,† †Institut fur Technische Chemie, Leibniz Universitaẗ Hannover, Callinstrasse 3, D-30167 Hannover, Germany ‡Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1 Gakuen-cho, Sakai Osaka 599-8531, Japan Key Lab for Advanced Materials and Institute of Fine Chemicals, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China

Understanding TiO2 photocatalysis: mechanisms and materials.

Photochemical splitting of water into H2 and O2 using solar energy is a process of great economic and environmental interest. Since the discovery of the first water splitting system based on TiO2 and Pt in 1972 by Fujishima and Honda, over 130 inorganic materials have been discovered as catalysts for this reaction. This review discusses the known inorganic catalysts with a focus on structure–activity relationships.

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Inorganic Materials as Catalysts for Photochemical Splitting of Water

The construction, characterization, and evaluation of a novel system for photocatalytic hydrogen generation that comprises semiconductor (CdS) crystallites embedded in a polymer (Nafion) matrix that also contains a hydrogen-evolution catalyst (Pt) are reported. Hydrogen-production efficiencies from water containing a sacrificial electron donor (sulfide ion) were greater than those commonly obtained with unsupported colloidal or powdered semiconductors under similar conditions. Several factors dramatically influence performance: the crystalline form and surface composition of the semiconductor and the extent of catalyst dispersion throughout the film.

H/sub 2/ photoproduction by Nafion/CdS/Pt films in H/sub 2/O/S/sup 2 -/ solutions

Photoassisted hydrogen production using visible light and coprecipitated ZnS·CdS without a noble metal

The Journal of Physical Chemistry is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Photoassisted hydrogen production using visible light and coprecipitated zinc sulfide.cntdot.cadmium sulfide without a noble metal N. Kakuta, K. H. Park, M. F. Finlayson, A. Ueno, A. J. Bard, A. Campion, M. A. Fox, S. E. Webber, and J. M. White J. Phys. Chem., 1985, 89 (5), 732-734• DOI: 10.1021/j100251a002 • Publication Date (Web): 01 May 2002 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on February 12, 2009

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Photoassisted hydrogen production using visible light and coprecipitated zinc sulfide.cntdot.cadmium sulfide without a noble metal

The Journal of Physical Chemistry is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Silica-supported ZnS.cntdot.CdS mixed semiconductor catalysts for photogeneration of hydrogen A. Ueno, N. Kakuta, K. H. Park, M. F. Finlayson, A. J. Bard, A. Campion, M. A. Fox, S. E. Webber, and J. M. White J. Phys. Chem., 1985, 89 (18), 3828-3833 • DOI: 10.1021/j100264a012 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on February 4, 2009

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Silica-supported ZnS.cntdot.CdS mixed semiconductor catalysts for photogeneration of hydrogen

The Journal of Physical Chemistry is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Surface analysis of semiconductor-incorporated polymer systems. 1. Nafion and cadmium sulfide-Nafion N. Kakuta, J. M. White, A. Campion, A. J. Bard, M. A. Fox, and S. E. Webber J. Phys. Chem., 1985, 89 (1), 48-52• DOI: 10.1021/j100247a014 • Publication Date (Web): 01 May 2002 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on February 12, 2009

/pdf/surface-analysis-of-semiconductor-incorporated-polymer-3q7g0e92xo.pdf

N. Kakuta

Papers

H/sub 2/ photoproduction by Nafion/CdS/Pt films in H/sub 2/O/S/sup 2 -/ solutions

Photoassisted hydrogen production using visible light and coprecipitated ZnS·CdS without a noble metal

Photoassisted hydrogen production using visible light and coprecipitated zinc sulfide.cntdot.cadmium sulfide without a noble metal

Silica-supported ZnS.cntdot.CdS mixed semiconductor catalysts for photogeneration of hydrogen

Surface analysis of semiconductor-incorporated polymer systems. 1. Nafion and cadmium sulfide-Nafion