Abstract The ESCAPE study (European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects) investigates relationships between long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution and health using cohort studies across Europe. This paper analyses the spatial variation of PM 2.5 , PM 2.5 absorbance, PM 10 and PM coarse concentrations between and within 20 study areas across Europe. We measured NO 2 , NO x , PM 2.5 , PM 2.5 absorbance and PM 10 between October 2008 and April 2011 using standardized methods. PM coarse was determined as the difference between PM 10 and PM 2.5 . In each of the twenty study areas, we selected twenty PM monitoring sites to represent the variability in important air quality predictors, including population density, traffic intensity and altitude. Each site was monitored over three 14-day periods spread over a year, using Harvard impactors. Results for each site were averaged after correcting for temporal variation using data obtained from a reference site, which was operated year-round. Substantial concentration differences were observed between and within study areas. Concentrations for all components were higher in Southern Europe than in Western and Northern Europe, but the pattern differed per component with the highest average PM 2.5 concentrations found in Turin and the highest PM coarse in Heraklion. Street/urban background concentration ratios for PM coarse (mean ratio 1.42) were as large as for PM 2.5 absorbance (mean ratio 1.38) and higher than those for PM 2.5 (1.14) and PM 10 (1.23), documenting the importance of non-tailpipe emissions. Correlations between components varied between areas, but were generally high between NO 2 and PM 2.5 absorbance (average R 2  = 0.80). Correlations between PM 2.5 and PM coarse were lower (average R 2  = 0.39). Despite high correlations, concentration ratios between components varied, e.g. the NO 2 /PM 2.5 ratio varied between 0.67 and 3.06. In conclusion, substantial variability was found in spatial patterns of PM 2.5 , PM 2.5 absorbance, PM 10 and PM coarse . The highly standardized measurement of particle concentrations across Europe will contribute to a consistent assessment of health effects across Europe.

Spatial variation of PM2.5, PM10, PM2.5 absorbance and PMcoarse concentrations between and within 20 European study areas and the relationship with NO2 - Results of the ESCAPE project

Currently half the world population lives in cities, and this proportion is expected to increase rapidly to 70% over the next years. Over the years, we have created large, mostly grey cities with many high-rise buildings and little green space. Disease rates tend to be higher in urban areas than in rural areas. More green space in cities could reduce these rates. Here, we describe the importance of green space for health, and make recommendations for further research. Green space has been associated with many beneficial health effects, including reduced all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and improved mental health, possibly through mediators, such as reduced air pollution, temperature and stress, and increased physical activity, social contacts, and restoration. Additional studies are needed to strengthen the evidence base and provide further guidelines to transport planners, urban planners, and landscape architects. We need more longitudinal studies and intervention studies, further understanding of the contribution of various mechanisms toward health, and more information on susceptible populations and on where, when, how much, and what type of green space is needed. Also needed are standardized methods for green space quality assessments and evaluations of effectiveness of green prescriptions in clinical practice. Many questions are ideally suited for environmental epidemiologists, who should work with other stakeholders to address the right questions and translate knowledge into action. In conclusion, a growing evidence base supports the hypothesis that greener cities are healthier cities.

Fifty Shades of Green: Pathway to Healthy Urban Living.

Environmental pollutants and child health-A review of recent concerns

Background: In the United States, one in six children are affected by neurodevelopmental disorders, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in flame-retardant chemicals are measured ubiquitously...

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Developmental PBDE Exposure and IQ/ADHD in Childhood: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

The overall objective of the EDEN study was to examine the relations and potential interactions between maternal exposures and health status during pregnancy, fetal development, health status of the infant at birth and the child's health and development.

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Cohort Profile: The EDEN mother-child cohort on the prenatal and early postnatal determinants of child health and development

Background: Developmental periods in early life may be particularly vulnerable to impacts of environmental exposures. Human research on this topic has generally focused on single exposure–health effect relationships. The “exposome” concept encompasses the totality of exposures from conception onward, complementing the genome. Objectives: The Human Early-Life Exposome (HELIX) project is a new collaborative research project that aims to implement novel exposure assessment and biomarker methods to characterize early-life exposure to multiple environmental factors and associate these with omics biomarkers and child health outcomes, thus characterizing the “early-life exposome.” Here we describe the general design of the project. Methods: In six existing birth cohort studies in Europe, HELIX will estimate prenatal and postnatal exposure to a broad range of chemical and physical exposures. Exposure models will be developed for the full cohorts totaling 32,000 mother–child pairs, and biomarkers will be measured in a subset of 1,200 mother–child pairs. Nested repeat-sampling panel studies (n = 150) will collect data on biomarker variability, use smartphones to assess mobility and physical activity, and perform personal exposure monitoring. Omics techniques will determine molecular profiles (metabolome, proteome, transcriptome, epigenome) associated with exposures. Statistical methods for multiple exposures will provide exposure–response estimates for fetal and child growth, obesity, neurodevelopment, and respiratory outcomes. A health impact assessment exercise will evaluate risks and benefits of combined exposures. Conclusions: HELIX is one of the first attempts to describe the early-life exposome of European populations and unravel its relation to omics markers and health in childhood. As proof of concept, it will form an important first step toward the life-course exposome.

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Narcis Avellana

Papers

The Human Early-Life Exposome (HELIX): Project Rationale and Design