Spintronics, or spin electronics, involves the study of active control and manipulation of spin degrees of freedom in solid-state systems. This article reviews the current status of this subject, including both recent advances and well-established results. The primary focus is on the basic physical principles underlying the generation of carrier spin polarization, spin dynamics, and spin-polarized transport in semiconductors and metals. Spin transport differs from charge transport in that spin is a nonconserved quantity in solids due to spin-orbit and hyperfine coupling. The authors discuss in detail spin decoherence mechanisms in metals and semiconductors. Various theories of spin injection and spin-polarized transport are applied to hybrid structures relevant to spin-based devices and fundamental studies of materials properties. Experimental work is reviewed with the emphasis on projected applications, in which external electric and magnetic fields and illumination by light will be used to control spin and charge dynamics to create new functionalities not feasible or ineffective with conventional electronics.

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Spintronics: Fundamentals and applications

Research into terahertz technology is now receiving increasing attention around the world, and devices exploiting this waveband are set to become increasingly important in a very diverse range of applications. Here, an overview of the status of the technology, its uses and its future prospects are presented.

Cutting-edge terahertz technology

The goal of this review is to present a comprehensive survey of the many intriguing facets of creatine (Cr) and creatinine metabolism, encompassing the pathways and regulation of Cr biosynthesis an...

http://www.afboard.com/library/creatinemetabolism.pdf

Creatine and Creatinine Metabolism

羟氨苄青霉素引起大疱性类天疱疮样疹

Two-dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) have been a central focus of materials research since the discovery of graphene just over a decade ago. Each layer in 2DLMs consists of a covalently bonded, dangling-bond-free lattice and is weakly bound to neighbouring layers by van der Waals interactions. This makes it feasible to isolate, mix and match highly disparate atomic layers to create a wide range of van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) without the constraints of lattice matching and processing compatibility. Exploiting the novel properties in these vdWHs with diverse layering of metals, semiconductors or insulators, new designs of electronic devices emerge, including tunnelling transistors, barristors and flexible electronics, as well as optoelectronic devices, including photodetectors, photovoltaics and light-emitting devices with unprecedented characteristics or unique functionalities. We review the recent progress and challenges, and offer our perspective on the exploration of 2DLM-based vdWHs for future application in electronics and optoelectronics. With a dangling-bond-free surface, two dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) can enable the creation of diverse van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) without the conventional constraint of lattice matching or process compatibility. This Review discusses the recent advances in exploring 2DLM vdWHs for future electronics and optoelectronics.

Van der Waals heterostructures and devices

The ultrafast intersubband relaxation in GaN quantum wells has been verified. Al0.65Ga0.35N/GaN multiple quantum wells, with as many as 200 wells, were grown by optimizing the barrier thickness and introducing GaN intermediate layers. The intersubband absorption is sufficiently strong for the relaxation time to be measured. A pump–probe measurement is performed to investigate the relaxation. An ultrashort relaxation time of less than 150 fs is obtained at a wavelength of 4.5 μm. The transient time is shorter than that of InGaAs quantum wells by approximately an order of magnitude. This result is promising for realizing ultrafast optical switches.

Ultrafast intersubband relaxation (⩽150 fs) in AlGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells

Future bandwidth demand in optical communication and signal processing systems will soon exceed 100?Gb?s?1 as is commonly forecasted from a throughput experience curve for communication systems. However, such systems cannot be realized without introducing ultrafast, all-optical devices, since existing optoelectronic and electronic devices and integrated circuits would not be able to function at a bit rate exceeding 100?Gb?s?1, because of the speed limit intrinsic to conventional semiconductor materials and devices. All-optical devices based on completely new principles, not being restricted by properties of existing materials and device principles, must be developed for the realization of ultrafast communication and signal processing systems. This paper reviews requirements of ultrafast all-optical devices and recent progress in ultrafast light sources and all-optical switches based on either novel device principles or ultrafast phenomena in novel materials such as quantum-confined nanostructures. Recent developments described here include mode-locked lasers and a variety of all-optical switches based on different phenomena including Mach?Zehnder interferometer structures, spin relaxation, intersubband transition, and ultrafast absorption recovery in organic thin films and semiconductor quantum dots. Some of the recent developments have already shown capability of basic functions such as ultrafast pulse generation and signal processing at the bit rate of 500?Gb?s?1 to 1?Tb?s?1. Technical challenges expected for the future are discussed in view of their applications in real systems.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/183/pdf

Femtosecond all-optical devices for ultrafast communication and signal processing

We performed photoreflectance (PR) spectroscopy in order to investigate the fundamental band gap of GaAs1-xBix alloys. The temperature dependence of the band gap energy was evaluated by analyzing of the Franz–Keldysh oscillation in the PR spectra. With increasing Bi content, the band gap energy of GaAs1-xBix alloy is reduced, which shows a large optical bowing. The temperature coefficient of the band gap decreases appreciably in alloys with increasing Bi content. For x=0.026, the temperature coefficient near room temperature is -0.15 meV/K which is 1/3 of the value for GaAs.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1143/JJAP.42.371/pdf

Temperature Dependence of GaAs1-xBix Band Gap Studied by Photoreflectance Spectroscopy

We present the fabrication and characterization of metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodiodes using the same undoped GaAs layer that is used as a buffer layer in the epitaxial structure for GaAs field effect transistors (FET's). To study the dark current mechanism, various metal electrodes used for Schottky contacts are examined. A drastic V-shape relationship between the dark current of MSM photodiode and the Schottky barrier height is found. An extremely low dark current (a few nanoamperes) in the MSM photodiode is obtained by using tungsten silicide as electrode metal. It is concluded that the dark current is a function of a rivalry relation between the electron injection at the cathode and the hole injection at the anode. The internal gain of the MSM photodiode with tungsten silicide contacts is found, and possible mechanisms are discussed. A flat frequency response up to 1.3 GHz is obtained. The results shows the feasibility of MSM photodiodes for use as photodetectors with low minimum detectable power, and their applicability to monolithic integration with FET circuits.

Low dark current GaAs metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodiodes using WSi x contacts

A carcinogenic heterocyclic amine, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), was measured in condensate of cigarette mainstream smoke by HPLC. PhIP was detected in all brands of filter-tipped cigarettes analyzed. The mean level of PhIP in the cigarette mainstream smoke was 16.4 ng/cig.

Osamu Wada

Papers

Ultrafast intersubband relaxation (⩽150 fs) in AlGaN/GaN multiple quantum wells

Femtosecond all-optical devices for ultrafast communication and signal processing

Temperature Dependence of GaAs1-xBix Band Gap Studied by Photoreflectance Spectroscopy

Low dark current GaAs metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodiodes using WSi x contacts

Detection of a carcinogen, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), in cigarette smoke condensate.