This article reviews the physical aspects of a cross-disciplinary science and technology field: the microwave processing of materials. High-temperature microwave processing has a clear industrial perspective in such areas as the production of advanced ceramics, the deposition of thermal barrier coatings, the remediation of hazardous wastes etc. This review starts with the relevant fundamental notions regarding the absorption of electromagnetic waves, heat transfer and the electrodynamics of single- and multimode microwave cavities. Useful formulae, estimates, and interrelations between process variables are presented. This is followed by a review of process examples illustrating the specific features of microwave processing: reduction in energy consumption and process duration, rapid and controllable heating, peculiar temperature distribution, and selectivity of energy deposition. Much attention is given to the advantages of higher-frequency millimetre-wave processing, which include the enhanced absorption in many materials of industrial interest, improved uniformity of electromagnetic energy and temperature, and the possibility of surface treatment. The phenomenon of microwave process rate enhancement is addressed in connection with the problem of the non-thermal microwave effect on mass transport in solids. Both experimental and theoretical approaches to the identification of the mechanism responsible for this effect are illustrated. Finally, the physical and technical factors influencing microwave technology scaleup and transfer to industry are discussed.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/34/13/201/pdf

High-temperature microwave processing of materials

Of late, nanotechnology seems to be rapidly thrusting its applications in all aspects of life including engineering and medicine. Materials science and engineering has experienced a tremendous growth in the field of nanocomposite development with enhanced chemical, mechanical, and physical properties. A wide array of research has been conducted in the processing of nanocomposites. Consolidation of these systems from loose particles to bulk free form entities has always been a challenge. To name a few, traditional consolidation techniques such as cold pressing and sintering at high temperatures, hot pressing, and hot isostatic pressing have strong limitations of not being able to retain the nanoscale grain size due to the excessive grain growth during processing. This article reviews in detail the results from numerous studies on various methods for manufacturing nanocomposites with improved properties and retained nanostructures. Both challenges and recent advances are discussed in detail in this review.

Challenges and advances in nanocomposite processing techniques

This paper presents a review of the experimental achievements related to the development of high-power gyrotron oscillators for long-pulse or CW operation and pulsed gyrotrons for many applications. In addition, this work gives a short overview on the present development status of frequency step-tunable and multi-frequency gyrotrons, coaxial-cavity multi-megawatt gyrotrons, gyrotrons for technological and spectroscopy applications, relativistic gyrotrons, large orbit gyrotrons (LOGs), quasi-optical gyrotrons, fast- and slow-wave cyclotron autoresonance masers (CARMs), gyroklystrons, gyro-TWT amplifiers, gyrotwystron amplifiers, gyro-BWOs, gyro-harmonic converters, gyro-peniotrons, magnicons, free electron masers (FEMs), and dielectric vacuum windows for such high-power mm-wave sources. Gyrotron oscillators (gyromonotrons) are mainly used as high-power millimeter wave sources for electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH), electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD), stability control, and diagnostics of magnetically confined plasmas for clean generation of energy by controlled thermonuclear fusion. The maximum pulse length of commercially available 140 GHz, megawatt-class gyrotrons employing synthetic diamond output windows is 30 min (CPI and European KIT-SPC-THALES collaboration). The world record parameters of the European tube are as follows: 0.92 MW output power at 30-min pulse duration, 97.5% Gaussian mode purity, and 44% efficiency, employing a single-stage depressed collector (SDC) for energy recovery. A maximum output power of 1.5 MW in 4.0-s pulses at 45% efficiency was generated with the QST-TOSHIBA (now CANON) 110-GHz gyrotron. The Japan 170-GHz ITER gyrotron achieved 1 MW, 800 s at 55% efficiency and holds the energy world record of 2.88 GJ (0.8 MW, 60 min) and the efficiency record of 57% for tubes with an output power of more than 0.5 MW. The Russian 170-GHz ITER gyrotron obtained 0.99 (1.2) MW with a pulse duration of 1000 (100) s and 53% efficiency. The prototype tube of the European 2-MW, 170-GHz coaxial-cavity gyrotron achieved in short pulses the record power of 2.2 MW at 48% efficiency and 96% Gaussian mode purity. Gyrotrons with pulsed magnet for various short-pulse applications deliver Pout = 210 kW with τ = 20 μs at frequencies up to 670 GHz (η ≅ 20%), Pout = 5.3 kW at 1 THz (η = 6.1%), and Pout = 0.5 kW at 1.3 THz (η = 0.6%). Gyrotron oscillators have also been successfully used in materials processing. Such technological applications require tubes with the following parameters: f > 24 GHz, Pout = 4–50 kW, CW, η > 30%. The CW powers produced by gyroklystrons and FEMs are 10 kW (94 GHz) and 36 W (15 GHz), respectively. The IR FEL at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in the USA obtained a record average power of 14.2 kW at a wavelength of 1.6 μm. The THz FEL (NOVEL) at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Russia achieved a maximum average power of 0.5 kW at wavelengths 50–240 μm (6.00–1.25 THz).

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State-of-the-Art of High-Power Gyro-Devices and Free Electron Masers

The main focused aim of developing new processing and manufacturing technologies are to reduce production or manufacturing costs, processing times, and to enhance manufactured product properties. The developed processing techniques should be widely acceptable for all types of materials including metal matrix composites, ceramics, alloys, and fiber reinforced plastics. Microwave materials processing is emerging as a novel processing technology which is applicable to a wide variety of materials system including processing of MMC, FRP, alloys, ceramics, metals, powder metallurgy, material joining, coatings, and claddings. In comparison to the conventional processes, microwave processing of materials offers better mechanical properties with reduced defects and economical advantages in terms of power and time savings. The present review work focuses mainly on global developments taking place in the field of microwave processing of materials and their relevant industrial applications.

Microwave Processing of Materials and Applications in Manufacturing Industries: A Review

Thermal transport in polymeric materials and across composite interfaces

In recent years, a considerable interest has been drawn to microwave heating of powder metals and other electrically conductive materials. In this paper a consistent formulation describing the absorption of microwaves in electrically conductive materials under different microwave heating conditions is developed. A special case when conductive powder particles are surrounded by insulating oxide layers is investigated in detail using the effective-medium approximation. The conditions giving rise to skin effect governed, volumetric, and localized microwave heating are analyzed. Experimental observations of different microwave heating regimes in silicon, iron, and copper powder compacts are in general agreement with the theoretical model.

Microwave heating of conductive powder materials

Results of a comparative study of pore evolution in nanostructured alumina membranes under annealing in a gyrotron microwave system and in conventional furnace are described. Microwave heating has resulted in an enhanced mass transport leading to reduction in the surface porosity of the membranes. Evolution patterns for the shape of individual pores are discussed and compared for microwave and conventional annealing. The notably different behavior of the pores suggests that microwave radiation provides an additional driving force for mass transport. The experimentally observed enhancement of mass transport appears to be stronger than predicted by the earlier proposed models.

Evidence for microwave enhanced mass transport in the annealing of nanoporous alumina membranes

Sintering of nanostructural titanium oxide using millimeter-wave radiation

Microwave influence on phase transformations in nanostructured alumina has been investigated in a comparative study. It has been found that microwave heating results in a lower phase transformation temperature, not affecting other features of the phase transformation process such as grain size and the effect of dopant addition. For the first time, the dependence of the effect on microwave intensity has been characterized quantitatively. Unexpectedly, this dependence turns out to be non-monotonic, and the phase transformation rate reaches its maximum when moderate-intensity microwaves are used for heating.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3727/41/10/102008/pdf

S. V. Egorov

Papers

Microwave heating of conductive powder materials

Evidence for microwave enhanced mass transport in the annealing of nanoporous alumina membranes

Sintering of nanostructural titanium oxide using millimeter-wave radiation

Effect of microwave heating on phase transformations in nanostructured alumina

Synthesis and structural characterization of ultrafine terbium oxide powders