How has Japan become a major economic power, a world leader in the automotive and electronics industries? What is the secret of their success? The consensus has been that, though the Japanese are not particularly innovative, they are exceptionally skilful at imitation, at improving products that already exist. But now two leading Japanese business experts, Ikujiro Nonaka and Hiro Takeuchi, turn this conventional wisdom on its head: Japanese firms are successful, they contend, precisely because they are innovative, because they create new knowledge and use it to produce successful products and technologies. Examining case studies drawn from such firms as Honda, Canon, Matsushita, NEC, 3M, GE, and the U.S. Marines, this book reveals how Japanese companies translate tacit to explicit knowledge and use it to produce new processes, products, and services.

The knowledge-creating company : how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation

In 1974 an article appeared in Science magazine with the dry-sounding title “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases” by a pair of psychologists who were not well known outside their discipline of decision theory. In it Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman introduced the world to Prospect Theory, which mapped out how humans actually behave when faced with decisions about gains and losses, in contrast to how economists assumed that people behave. Prospect Theory turned Economics on its head by demonstrating through a series of ingenious experiments that people are much more concerned with losses than they are with gains, and that framing a choice from one perspective or the other will result in decisions that are exactly the opposite of each other, even if the outcomes are monetarily the same. Prospect Theory led cognitive psychology in a new direction that began to uncover other human biases in thinking that are probably not learned but are part of our brain’s wiring.

Thinking fast and slow.

How have Japanese companies become world leaders in the automotive and electronics industries, among others? What is the secret of their success? Two leading Japanese business experts, Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi, are the first to tie the success of Japanese companies to their ability to create new knowledge and use it to produce successful products and technologies. In The Knowledge-Creating Company, Nonaka and Takeuchi provide an inside look at how Japanese companies go about creating this new knowledge organizationally. The authors point out that there are two types of knowledge: explicit knowledge, contained in manuals and procedures, and tacit knowledge, learned only by experience, and communicated only indirectly, through metaphor and analogy. U.S. managers focus on explicit knowledge. The Japanese, on the other hand, focus on tacit knowledge. And this, the authors argue, is the key to their success--the Japanese have learned how to transform tacit into explicit knowledge. To explain how this is done--and illuminate Japanese business practices as they do so--the authors range from Greek philosophy to Zen Buddhism, from classical economists to modern management gurus, illustrating the theory of organizational knowledge creation with case studies drawn from such firms as Honda, Canon, Matsushita, NEC, Nissan, 3M, GE, and even the U.S. Marines. For instance, using Matsushita's development of the Home Bakery (the world's first fully automated bread-baking machine for home use), they show how tacit knowledge can be converted to explicit knowledge: when the designers couldn't perfect the dough kneading mechanism, a software programmer apprenticed herself withthe master baker at Osaka International Hotel, gained a tacit understanding of kneading, and then conveyed this information to the engineers. In addition, the authors show that, to create knowledge, the best management style is neither top-down nor bottom-up, but rather what they call "middle-up-down," in which the middle managers form a bridge between the ideals of top management and the chaotic realities of the frontline. As we make the turn into the 21st century, a new society is emerging. Peter Drucker calls it the "knowledge society," one that is drastically different from the "industrial society," and one in which acquiring and applying knowledge will become key competitive factors. Nonaka and Takeuchi go a step further, arguing that creating knowledge will become the key to sustaining a competitive advantage in the future. Because the competitive environment and customer preferences changes constantly, knowledge perishes quickly. With The Knowledge-Creating Company, managers have at their fingertips years of insight from Japanese firms that reveal how to create knowledge continuously, and how to exploit it to make successful new products, services, and systems.

The knowledge-creating company

Learning style instruments are widely used but not enough is known about their reliability and validity and their impact on pedagogy in post-16 learning. This report documents work from a project commissioned by the Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA) to carry out an extensive review of research on post-16 learning styles, to evaluate the main models of learning styles, and to discuss the implications of learning styles for post-16 teaching and learning. The following research questions were addressed: What models of learning styles are influential and potentially influential? What empirical evidence is there to support the claims made for these models? What are the broad implications for pedagogy of these models? What empirical evidence is there that models of learning styles have an impact on students’ learning? The project identified the range of models that are available and influential or potentially influential in research and practice, located these models within identifiable ‘families’ of ideas about learning styles, evaluated the theories, claims and applications of these models, with a particular focus on evaluating the authors’ claims for reliability and validity, evaluated the claims made for the pedagogical implications of the selected models of learning styles, identified what gaps there are in current knowledge and what future research is needed in this area, and made recommendations and drew conclusions about the research field as a whole. In conclusion, the implications for pedagogy are drawn out and recommendations and conclusions are offered for practitioners, policymakers and the research community. The report concludes that it matters fundamentally which model is chosen. A second report (indexed at TD/TNC 79.72) discusses the appeal of learning styles as well as offering an overview of ways in which political and institutional contexts in the learning and skills sector affect the ways that learning styles might be put into practice.

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Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: a systematic and critical review

Fundamental statistics in psychology and education.

In line with increased attention on the application of cognitive approaches to industrial, work and organizational psychology, the last 40 years have witnessed a growing interest in application of the cognitive style construct to the field of business and management. The purpose of this paper is threefold. First, we wish to advance understanding of cognitive styles research by elucidating trends and perspectives related to business and management. Second, we identify gaps in the literature and promising areas of research that can be further developed. This is accomplished by means of a review of papers published between 1969 and 2009. Eight themes emerged from our analysis: (a) vocational and occupational issues; (b) national culture; (c) teamwork and interpersonal relationships; (d) learning; (e) decision making; (f) creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship; (g) sales and marketing; and (h) management information systems, information management and use. Third, we identify valid and reliable methods of assessment of cognitive style for use in business and management settings. Finally we draw a number of conclusions regarding the current state of cognitive styles research and promising directions for future research.

Role of Cognitive Styles in Business and Management: Reviewing 40 Years of Research

Researching the psychology of cognitive style and learning style: Is there really a future?

Tacit knowledge is believed to be one factor that distinguishes successful managers from others. We sought to determine whether levels of accumulated managerial tacit knowledge (LAMTK) were associated with managers' dominant learning styles. Instruments used in the study, involving 356 Malaysian public sector employees, included Sternberg et al.'s (2000) Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers and a normative version of Kolb's (1999a) Learning Styles Inventory (LSI-Ill). Findings suggest that LAMTK is independent of the length of subjects' general work experience, but positively related to the amount of time spent working in a management context. Learning styles also had a significant relationship. Subjects who spent most of their time performing management functions and whose dominant learning styles were accommodating had significantly higher LAMTK than those with different learning styles. We also found support for the belief that learners with a strong preference for all four different abilities defined in Kolb's learning theory may be critical for effective experiential learning.

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Experiential learning and the acquisition of managerial tacit knowledge

Past, Present and Future Perspectives of Management Learning, Education and Development - Steven J Armstrong and Cynthia V Fukami PART ONE: MANAGEMENT LEARNING: THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION Knowledge and Knowing in the Context of Management Learning, Education and Development - Robert Chia Experiential Learning Theory - Alice Y Kolb and David A Kolb A Dynamic, Holistic Approach to Management Learning, Education and Development Collective Learning and Knowledge Transfer - Gabriele Lakomski Reflection, Reflective Practice and Organizing Reflection - Russ Vince and Michael Reynolds Critical Management Education Beyond the Siege - David M Boje and Khadija Al Arkoubi Collaborative Learning - Vivien E Hodgson State of the Art - Charles Fornaciari and Kathy Lund-Dean Ethics and Learning Developing Leaders - Neal M Ashkanasy, Marie T Dasborough, and Kaylene W Ascough Teaching about Emotional Intelligence and Training in Emotional Skills PART TWO: MANAGEMENT EDUCATION: IN A FORMAL LEARNING CONTEXT Artful Teaching - Joan Gallos Using the Visual, Creative and Performing Arts in Contemporary Management Education Technology in the Classroom - T Grandon Gill Distance Learning and Web-Based Instruction in Management Education - J B Arbaugh and S S Warell Learning-Centered Course Design - David A Whetten, Travis D Johnson and D Lynn Sorenson Mentoring Ph.D. Students within an Apprenticeship Framework - Gerald R Ferris, Pamela L Perrew[ac]e and M Ronald Buckley Diversity in the Context of Lifelong Learning - Myrtle P Bell, Mustafa F Ozbilgin and Mine Karatas-Ozkan Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies in Management Education - Eugene Sadler-Smith Building Learning Teams - Larry Michaelsen, Tim O Peterson and Michael Sweet The Key to Harnessing the Power of Small Groups in Management Education Problem-based and Project-based Learning Approaches - Robert DeFillippi and Richard G Milter Applying Knowledge to Authentic Situations Assessment and Accreditation in Business Schools - Robert S Rubin and Kathryn Martell The Research-Teaching Nexus - Roy J Lewicki and James R Bailey Tensions and Opportunities PART THREE: MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT: NON CREDIT BASED LEARNING Reflexivity, Learning and Reflexive Practice - Ann L Cunliffe Action Learning and Related Modalities - Joseph A Raelin Developing Emotional, Social and Cognitive Intelligence Competencies in Managers and Leaders - Richard E Boyatzis A Framework for Leadership Development - George A Hrivnak Jr, Rebecca J Reichard and Ronald E Riggio Coaching and Mentoring in Support of Management Development - David Clutterbuck Rethinking the Role of Management Development in Preparing Global Business Leaders - Kathryn Aten, Luciara Nardon and Richard M Steers Community of Practice or Practices of a Community? - Silvia Gherardi Assessment and Accreditation of Non-formal Management Education and Development Programmes - Lichia Yiu and Raymond Saner Future Perspectives - James O'Toole

The SAGE Handbook of Management Learning, Education and Development

In informal mentoring systems, proteges seek help from other organizational members between whom there is often mutual attraction and rapport resulting in a level of interpersonal comfort between the members of the relationship. Because of the apparent benefits for both employee and organization, many human resource managers now attempt to establish formal mentoring systems in which mentors and proteges are brought together systematically. It is recognized, however, that assigned mentoring relationships are not usually as beneficial as those that develop informally. There appears, therefore, to be a need to match partners in some way. It has been suggested that a better grasp of psychological factors is necessary if this is to be achieved. One personality variable that may be partly responsible for shaping the overall effectiveness of such relationships is cognitive style. The present study, involving 53 mentor-protege dyads, examined the effects of the cognitive styles of mentors and proteges on the process of formal mentoring. Data were collected from both partners in each dyadic relationship, and findings suggest that in dyads whose mentor is more analytic, congruence between the partners' cognitive styles enhances the quality of their mentoring relationships. Cognitive style was also found to work indirectly through its influence on other variables to enhance mutual liking and psychosocial and career mentoring functions. Gender composition was also found to have a significant impact on the mentoring process. Dyads with female mentors and male proteges were found to be the least favourable combination.

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/joms326.pdf?abstractid=369744&mirid=1

Steven J. Armstrong

Papers

Role of Cognitive Styles in Business and Management: Reviewing 40 Years of Research

Researching the psychology of cognitive style and learning style: Is there really a future?

Experiential learning and the acquisition of managerial tacit knowledge

The SAGE Handbook of Management Learning, Education and Development

Formal Mentoring Systems: An Examination of the Effects of Mentor/Protege Cognitive Styles on the Mentoring Process