Magnetorheological (MR) materials are classified as smart materials due to their responsiveness to external magnetic stimuli. Intensive research on MR materials has led to broad applications in several potential fields. A solid carrier matrix state called MR elastomer with its exceptional magnetic responsive feature is obtained by merging magnetizable particles within an elastomeric polymer. This integration results in outstanding characteristics on the rheological performances. Special prominence is given to the understanding of the base materials and fabrication as well as the functional behavior through various characterization methods. Broad applications of MREs are also explored to provide a profound market picture and to motivate researchers to develop novel technology. The functional behavior of MREs is briefly explained. The art of the materials provides the current position and mapping of the matrix and filler particles. Types of matrix and particles are mentioned together with the level of the research interest on MREs. Description of the fabrication is provided in simple diagrams as summarized from previous works to enhance the MREs performance. The possible tests to reveal the characteristics of the MREs are delivered with the global experimental setup. The review also explains the applications of MREs as well as discussion on the MREs future promising applications.

Recent Progress on Magnetorheological Solids: Materials, Fabrication, Testing, and Applications†

Tuned, driven, and active soft matter

Field-stiffening effect of magneto-rheological elastomers

The dynamic modulus and the loss factor of magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) of various compositions and anisotropies are studied by dynamic torsion oscillations performed in the absence and in the presence of an external magnetic field. The emphasis is on the Payne effect, i.e. the dependence of the elastomer magnetorheological characteristics on the strain amplitude and their evolution with cyclically increasing and decreasing strain amplitudes. MREs are based on two silicone matrices differing in storage modulus (soft, G′ ∼ 103 Pa, and hard, G′ ∼ 104 Pa, matrices). For each matrix, the concentration of carbonyl iron particles with diameters of 3–5 μm was equal to 70 and 82 mass% (22 and 35 vol%, respectively) in the composite material. Samples for each filler content, isotropic and aligned-particles, are investigated. It is found that the Payne effect significantly increases in the presence of an external magnetic field and varies with the cyclical loading which reaches saturation after several cycles. The results are interpreted as the processes of formation–destruction–reformation of the internal filler structure under the simultaneously applied mechanical force and magnetic field. Impacts of matrix elasticity and magnetic interactions on the filler alignment are elucidated.

Experimental study of the magnetic field enhanced Payne effect in magnetorheological elastomers

In this paper, an overview on a class of materials with high actual research interest will be given. Magnetic hybrid materials, i.e. liquid or elastic matrices filled with magnetic nano- or micro-particles provide the possibility to influence their mechanical behaviour by application of technically easily realizable magnetic fields. In particular, the viscous and elastic behaviour of magnetic hybrid materials can be influenced by magnetic fields. The physical reason for these changes are field-induced reconfigurations of the microstructure formed by the magnetic particles. Experimental techniques to observe these changes and their relation to changes in the mechanical behaviour of magnetic hybrid materials will be in focus of this review.

Microstructure and rheology of magnetic hybrid materials

The phase behavior of polymer solutions and composites is a complex issue and is of both technological and fundamental interest. For a better understanding of the microstructure formation in magnetorheological (MR) elastomers, x-ray micro-computed tomography (XμCT) investigations were carried out. Magnetorheological elastomers with 5% mass content of iron powder were prepared under different magnetic field strengths between 1 and 220 kA m−1. Through quantitative analysis, valuable information was obtained regarding the number, size and frequency distribution of column structures in MR elastomers, as well as the magnetic field required to force structure formation.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/21/10/105018/pdf

XμCT analysis of magnetic field-induced phase transitions in magnetorheological elastomers

X-ray microcomputed tomography was used in a three-dimensional investigation of the microstructure of suspensions of multi-domain soft iron particles in magnetic nanofluids. The measurements were performed using two different approaches: with the sample kept frozen, and with the sample under the effect of an external magnetic field. Results show that even a relatively low magnetic field gradient drives the micron-sized iron particles towards the stronger field and thus leads to a redistribution of the ferromagnetic particles in the magnetic nanofluid. Three-dimensional images of the internal microstructure of the composite magnetizable fluid (CMF) were obtained not only for the nano–micro composite system placed in a closed sample holder, but also for the spikes formed at the CMF free surface. It was demonstrated that x-ray microcomputed tomography is an efficient way to investigate the distribution and chain formation of ferromagnetic microparticles in a magnetic nanofluid carrier allowing an analysis even at a single particle level.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/23/5/055018/pdf

Three-dimensional microstructural investigation of high magnetization nano-micro composite fluids using x-ray microcomputed tomography

Thermal and radiation degradation effects on fluoroelastomer destined to gasket applications in nuclear power plants

The stability of polymer materials is essentially determined by the molecular structure and the presence of additives and impurities. When a polymer substrate is subjected to vigorous damage by an energetic treatment, the molecular scission generates fragments, which may be oxidized by the diffused oxygen. The traces of oxide catalysts that may be accidentally incorporated into the polymer materials initiate a faster oxidation that influences the material durability. This study presents the behavior of poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL) loaded with 2 wt% PbZrO3 previously doped with foreign atoms (Cr, Nd, Mg, Mn, Ti) at the concentration of 0.1 mol%. The investigation procedure, chemiluminescence, reveals the acceleration of the degradation of PCL. The contribution of the metallic traces existing in the structure of PbTiO3 powder is characterized by the activation energies (Ea) involved in the propagation of oxidation. The free radicals are involved in a faster oxidation, when the polymer substrate is heated at superior rates. The comparison of the oxidation levels at the extended period of heating and irradiation indicates the sustained activities of metallic traces acting in oxide powder fillers, especially at temperatures exceeding 150 °C. The essential considerations on material strength against oxidation are presented.

https://www.mdpi.com/2673-6209/2/3/25/pdf?version=1659663483

The Stability Consequences Promoted by Doping Metallic Atoms on the Degradation of Poly (ε-Caprolactone)

This study presents the functional effects of BaTiO3 powder loaded in ethylene–propylene–diene rubber (EPDM) in three concentrations: 0, 1, and 2.5 phr. The characterization of mechanical properties, oxidation strength, and biological vulnerability is achieved on these materials subjected to an accelerated degradation stimulated by their γ-irradiation at 50 and 100 kGy. The thermal performances of these materials are improved when the content of filler becomes higher. The results obtained by chemiluminescence, FTIR-ATR, and mechanical testing indicate that the loading of 2.5 phr is the most proper composition that resists for a long time after it is γ-irradiated at a high dose. If the oxidation starts at 176 °C in the pristine polymer, it becomes significant at 188 and 210 °C in the case of composites containing 1 and 2.5 phr of filler, respectively. The radiation treatment induces a significant stability improvement measured by the enlargement of temperature range by more than 1.5 times, which explains the durability growth for the radiation-processed studied composites. The extension of the stability period is also based on the interaction between degrading polymer substrate and particle surface in the composite richest in titanate fraction when the exposure is 100 kGy was analyzed. The mechanical testing as well as the FTIR investigation clearly delimits the positive effects of carbon black on the functionality of EPDM/BaTiO3 composites. The contribution of carbon black is a defining feature of the studied composites based on the nucleation of the host matrix by which the polymer properties are effectively ameliorated.

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T Borbáth

Papers

XμCT analysis of magnetic field-induced phase transitions in magnetorheological elastomers

Three-dimensional microstructural investigation of high magnetization nano-micro composite fluids using x-ray microcomputed tomography

Thermal and radiation degradation effects on fluoroelastomer destined to gasket applications in nuclear power plants

The Stability Consequences Promoted by Doping Metallic Atoms on the Degradation of Poly (ε-Caprolactone)

The Contribution of BaTiO3 to the Stability Improvement of Ethylene–Propylene–Diene Rubber: Part I—Pristine Filler