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Using Multivariate Statistics

In 1974 an article appeared in Science magazine with the dry-sounding title “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases” by a pair of psychologists who were not well known outside their discipline of decision theory. In it Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman introduced the world to Prospect Theory, which mapped out how humans actually behave when faced with decisions about gains and losses, in contrast to how economists assumed that people behave. Prospect Theory turned Economics on its head by demonstrating through a series of ingenious experiments that people are much more concerned with losses than they are with gains, and that framing a choice from one perspective or the other will result in decisions that are exactly the opposite of each other, even if the outcomes are monetarily the same. Prospect Theory led cognitive psychology in a new direction that began to uncover other human biases in thinking that are probably not learned but are part of our brain’s wiring.

Thinking fast and slow.

This article presents an introduction to the Health Belief Model (HBM). The HBM states that the perception of a personal health behavior threat is influenced by at least three factors: general health values, interest and concern about health; specific beliefs about vulnerability to a particular health threat; and beliefs about the consequences of the health problem. Once an individual perceives a threat to his health and is simultaneously cued to action, if his perceived benefits outweighs his perceived costs, then the individual is most likely to undertake the recommended preventive health action. Key words: health promotion, health belief model, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, self-efficacy. Content available only in Romanian.

Health Belief Model

Although player enjoyment is central to computer games, there is currently no accepted model of player enjoyment in games. There are many heuristics in the literature, based on elements such as the game interface, mechanics, gameplay, and narrative. However, there is a need to integrate these heuristics into a validated model that can be used to design, evaluate, and understand enjoyment in games. We have drawn together the various heuristics into a concise model of enjoyment in games that is structured by flow. Flow, a widely accepted model of enjoyment, includes eight elements that, we found, encompass the various heuristics from the literature. Our new model, GameFlow, consists of eight elements -- concentration, challenge, skills, control, clear goals, feedback, immersion, and social interaction. Each element includes a set of criteria for achieving enjoyment in games. An initial investigation and validation of the GameFlow model was carried out by conducting expert reviews of two real-time strategy games, one high-rating and one low-rating, using the GameFlow criteria. The result was a deeper understanding of enjoyment in real-time strategy games and the identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the GameFlow model as an evaluation tool. The GameFlow criteria were able to successfully distinguish between the high-rated and low-rated games and identify why one succeeded and the other failed. We concluded that the GameFlow model can be used in its current form to review games; further work will provide tools for designing and evaluating enjoyment in games.

/pdf/gameflow-a-model-for-evaluating-player-enjoyment-in-games-4f7xfog0ca.pdf

GameFlow: a model for evaluating player enjoyment in games

"Gamification" is an informal umbrella term for the use of video game elements in non-gaming systems to improve user experience (UX) and user engagement. The recent introduction of 'gamified' applications to large audiences promises new additions to the existing rich and diverse research on the heuristics, design patterns and dynamics of games and the positive UX they provide. However, what is lacking for a next step forward is the integration of this precise diversity of research endeavors. Therefore, this workshop brings together practitioners and researchers to develop a shared understanding of existing approaches and findings around the gamification of information systems, and identify key synergies, opportunities, and questions for future research.

http://gamification-research.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/01-Deterding-Sicart-Nacke-OHara-Dixon.pdf

Gamification. using game-design elements in non-gaming contexts

On average, girls and women are less involved with video games than are boys and men, and when they do play, they often prefer different games. This article reports two studies that investigated the dislikes of German females with regard to video games. Study 1 applied conjoint analysis to female respondents’ (N= 317) ratings of fictional video games and demonstrated that lack of meaningful social interaction, followed by violent content and sexual gender role stereotyping of game characters, were the most important reasons why females disliked the games. Study 2, an online survey (N= 795), revealed that female respondents were less attracted to competitive elements in video games, suggesting an explanation for gender-specific game preferences. These findings are discussed with respect to communication theory on interactive entertainment and their implications for applied video game design.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00301.x

Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females’ Dislikes

The tremendous and still growing popularity of computer and video games has inspired Communication Researchers and Media Psychologists to investigate the factors of the enjoyment experienced by the players Apparently, the games' interactivity allows for a continuous stream of challenging and competitive situations that have to be resolved by the players Competition is therefore regarded a key element of the explanation of players' entertainment experience Subsequent to a theoretical explication, empirical evidence for the role of competition in the playing process and the impact of competitiveness for selective exposure to computer games is reported from a field experiment (N = 349) and an online survey study (N = 795)

Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: the role of competition

Linking back to D. Horton and R. Wohl (1956), the present approach conceptualizes and empirically examines viewers’ parasocial interaction experience with a TV performer. Causes and outcomes of parasocial interaction experience are examined. To this end, a new Experience of Parasocial Interaction (EPSI) scale is introduced. In a 2 (Bodily Addressing) × 2 (Verbal Addressing) between-subjects experiment (N = 198) viewers reported a more intense parasocial experience if they were addressed by a TV performer on a bodily and verbal level. In addition, the more viewers perceived the performer to be attractive and the stronger their perspective-taking ability, the more intense their parasocial experience. Stronger parasocial experience resulted in higher commitment to social norms and a greater enjoyment of the exposure situation.

/pdf/horton-and-wohl-revisited-exploring-viewers-experience-of-2x3qk052xt.pdf

Horton and Wohl Revisited: Exploring Viewers' Experience of Parasocial Interaction

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationship are often conflated conceptually and methodologically, leaving researchers unclear as to which concept is being tapped. This research clarifies these concepts and experimentally compares the most common measure of parasocial interaction, the Parasocial Interaction Scale (PSI-Scale), with a newer measure, the Experience of Parasocial Interaction Scale (EPSI-Scale). Participants (N = 383) viewed a brief videorecording of a woman who either bodily addressed the viewer or not, then completed a questionnaire. The EPSI-Scale was a better measure of parasocial interaction, understood as a within-viewing experience of mutual awareness, whereas the PSI-Scale may measure short- or long-term liking, or something else. To avoid conceptual and empirical confusion, researchers must choose measures with greater care.

/pdf/parasocial-interaction-and-parasocial-relationship-xnb4q1t972.pdf

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationship: Conceptual clarification and a critical assessment of measures

The vast majority of entertainment media is about people. Movies portray the faith of characters, talk shows host communicative guests, sports broadcasts feature competing athletes
and sympathetic commentators. These people obviously add to the entertainment value of the
media offerings in which they appear and in many cases, the success of the product totally
depends on one single person. Without Jay Leno, watching the “Tonight Show” would be a
boring experience. Without Lara Croft, the “Tomb Raider” computer games would be much
less fun to play. Apparently, using media entertainment is most often about observing how
people in the media look, what they are saying, and what they are doing (e.g., Flora, 2004).
Given the dominating position of people in most entertainment media, it is more than probable
that such observations (can) breed enjoyment.

Tilo Hartmann

Papers

Gender and Computer Games: Exploring Females’ Dislikes

Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: the role of competition

Horton and Wohl Revisited: Exploring Viewers' Experience of Parasocial Interaction

Parasocial interaction and parasocial relationship: Conceptual clarification and a critical assessment of measures

Parasocial Interactions and Relationships