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Fish viruses and fish viral diseases.

Determination of drugs in surface water and wastewater samples by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry: methods and preliminary results including toxicity studies with Vibrio fischeri

Nitroaromatic compounds, including 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3, 5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5-tetrazocine (HMX), N-methyl-N,2,4,6-tetranitroaniline (tetryl), and associated byproducts and degradation products, were released to the environment during manufacturing and load, assembly, and pack (LAP) processes at U.S. Army Ammunition Plants (AAPs) and other military facilities. As a result of the release of these nitroaromatic compounds into the environment, many AAPs have been placed on the National Priorities List for Superfund cleanup (Fed. Reg. 60:20330). Many of these sites cover a wide expanse of relatively undisturbed land and provide diverse habitats that support a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species. Nitroaromatics are potentially toxic to the indigenous species at these sites and present a significant concern for site remediation. Table 1 presents an overview of ranges of detected concentrations of the nitroaromatic compounds in groundwater, surface water, sediment, and soil at military and manufacturing sites.

Nitroaromatic Munition Compounds: Environmental Effects and Screening Values

There is widespread potential for human exposure to disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water because everyone drinks, bathes, cooks, and cleans with water. The need for clean and safe water led the U.S. Congress to pass the Safe Drinking Water Act more than 20 years ago in 1974. In 1976, chloroform, a trihalomethane (THM) and a principal DBP, was shown to be carcinogenic in rodents. This prompted the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) in 1979 to develop a drinking water rule that would provide guidance on the levels of THMs allowed in drinking water. Further concern was raised by epidemiology studies suggesting a weak association between the consumption of chlorinated drinking water and the occurrence of bladder, colon, and rectal cancer. In 1992 the U.S. EPA initiated a negotiated rulemaking to evaluate the need for additional controls for microbial pathogens and DBPs. The goal was to develop an approach that would reduce the level of exposure from disinfectants and DBPs without undermining the control of microbial pathogens. The product of these deliberations was a proposed stage 1 DBP rule. It was agreed that additional information was necessary on how to optimize the use of disinfectants while maintaining control of pathogens before further controls to reduce exposure beyond stage 1 were warranted. In response to this need, the U.S. EPA developed a 5-year research plan to support the development of the longer term rules to control microbial pathogens and DBPs. A considerable body of toxicologic data has been developed on DBPs that occur in the drinking water, but the main emphasis has been on THMs. Given the complexity of the problem and the need for additional data to support the drinking water DBP rules, the U.S. EPA, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and the U.S. Army are working together to develop a comprehensive biologic and mechanistic DBP database. Selected DBPs will be tested using 2-year toxicity and carcinogenicity studies in standard rodent models; transgenic mouse models and small fish models; in vitro mechanistic and toxicokinetic studies; and reproductive, immunotoxicity, and developmental studies. The goal is to create a toxicity database that reflects a wide range of DBPs resulting from different disinfection practices. This paper describes the approach developed by these agencies to provide the information needed to make scientifically based regulatory decisions.

Drinking water disinfection byproducts: review and approach to toxicity evaluation.

Real-time remote monitoring of water quality: a review of current applications, and advancements in sensor, telemetry, and computing technologies

This study compared the relative sensitivity of five inexpensive, rapid toxicity tests to the sensitivity of five standard aquatic acute toxicity tests through literature review and testing. The rapid toxicity tests utilized organisms that require little culturing or handling prior to testing: a freshwater rotifer (Branchionus calyciflorus); brine shrimp (Artemia salina); lettuce (Lactuca sativa); and two microbial tests (Photobacterium phosphoreum--Microtox{reg_sign} test, and a mixture of bacterial species--the Polytox{reg_sign} test). Standard acute toxicity test species included water fleas (Daphnia magna and Ceriodaphnia dubia), green algae (Selenastrum capricornutum), fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas), and mysid shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia). Sensitivity comparisons between rapid and standard acute toxicity tests were based on LC50/EC50 data from 11 test chemicals. Individually, the lettuce and rotifer tests ranked most similar in sensitivity to the standard tests, while Microtox fell just outside the range of sensitivities represented by the group of standard acute toxicity tests. The brine shrimp and Polytox tests were one or more orders of magnitude different from the standard acute toxicity tests for most compounds. The lettuce, rotifer, and Microtox tests could be used as a battery for preliminary toxicity screening of chemicals. Further evaluation of complex real-world environmental samples is recommended.

A comparison of standard acute toxicity tests with rapid‐screening toxicity tests

Using higher organisms in biological early warning systems for real-time toxicity detection.

Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for inorganic mercury in earthworms are usually < 1; however, factors up to ∼10 have been reported. Little information is available concerning the bioaccumulation of organic mercury in earthworms from actual contaminated soils and thus there has been uncertainty in the risk characterization phase of ecological risk assessments of mercury-contaminated sites. This study was initiated to determine the rate of uptake and bioaccumulation of total mercury (T-Hg) and monomethylmercury (MMHg) in Eisenia fetida from soils which have been contaminated with mercury for approximately 30 years. The study consisted of a 28-day uptake phase in three mercury-contaminated soils and one soil with background concentrations of mercury followed by a 14-day depuration phase in background soil only. Total mercury concentrations in the study soils ranged from 85 to 11,542 μg kg−1 dry weight soil; MMHg concentrations ranged from 1.12 to 7.35 μg kg−1 dry weight soil. Time to 90% steady states for T-Hg ranged from 36 to 42 days. A steady state did not occur for any of the MMHg exposures during the 42-day study; estimated time to 90% steady state varied from 97 to 192 days. BAFs for T-Hg ranged from 0.6 to 3.3. BAFs for MMHg ranged from 175 to 249. The BAFs for T-Hg and MMHg were larger in earthworms exposed to the lower contaminated soils and smaller in the higher mercury-contaminated soils. The absolute concentrations of T-Hg and MMHg bioaccumulated in E. fetida, however, were higher in the earthworms exposed to the higher mercury soils and lower in the less mercury-contaminated soils.

Bioaccumulation of Total Mercury and Monomethylmercury in the Earthworm Eisenia Fetida

An automated biomonitoring system for monitoring water quality includes an exposure chamber for housing an aquatic organism having ventilatory behavior and body movement sensitive to water quality. Electrodes sense electrical signals produced by the organism during its ventilatory behavior and body movement, and a controller responsive to signals from the electrodes determines a plurality of ventilatory parameters based on the signals. The ventilatory parameters are compared with corresponding thresholds to determine when the water to which the organism is exposed has caused physiological stress to the organism.

An apparatus and method for automated biomonitoring of water quality

The response characteristics of an aquatic biomonitor that detects toxicity by monitoring changes in bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque) ventilatory and movement patterns were evaluated in single chemical laboratory studies at concentrations near the 96-h LC(50) concentration and at the EILATox-Oregon Workshop in sequential tests of multiple unknown samples. Baseline data collected prior to exposure allows each fish to serve as its own control. When at least 70% of exposed fish exhibit ventilatory or movement parameters significantly different from baseline observations, a group alarm is declared. In the laboratory studies, the aquatic biomonitor responded to the majority of chemicals at the 96-h lc(50) within an hour or less, although substantially higher response times were found for malathion and pentachlorophenol. Workshop tests of single chemical concentrations presented as blind samples were consistent with the laboratory test results. There were no alarms under control conditions in any test. Although data are limited, the aquatic biomonitor appears to respond more rapidly to chemicals causing membrane irritation, narcosis or polar narcosis than to acetylcholinesterase inhibitors or oxidative phosphorylation uncouplers. All four monitored parameters (ventilatory rate, cough rate, ventilatory depth and movement) contributed to identification of first alarms at acutely toxic levels. Understanding these response patterns can be useful in data interpretation for biomonitor applications such as surface water monitoring for watershed protection, wastewater treatment plant effluent monitoring or source water monitoring for drinking water protection.

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Tommy R. Shedd

Papers

A comparison of standard acute toxicity tests with rapid‐screening toxicity tests

Using higher organisms in biological early warning systems for real-time toxicity detection.

Bioaccumulation of Total Mercury and Monomethylmercury in the Earthworm Eisenia Fetida

An apparatus and method for automated biomonitoring of water quality

Response Characteristics of an Aquatic Biomonitor Used for Rapid Toxicity Detection