In his Preface the author' says that he started out to review all the more important theories upon the topics ordinarily discussed under human motivation but soon found himself more and more limited to the presentation of his own point of view. This very well characterizes the book. It is a very personal product. It is an outline with some defense of the author's own thinking about instincts and appetites and sentiments and how they function in human behavior. And as the author draws so heavily upon James and McDougall, especially the latter, the book may well be looked upon as a sort of sequel to their efforts. There is a thought-provoking distinction presented between instinct and appetite. An instinct is said to be aroused always by something in the external situation; and, correspondingly, an appetite is said to be aroused by sensations from within the body itself. This places, of course, a heavy emphasis upon the cognitive factor in all instinctive behaviors; and the author prefers to use the cognitive factor, especially the knowledge of that end-experience which will satisfy, as a means of differentiating one instinct from another. In this there is a recognized difference from McDougall who placed more emphasis for differentiation upon the emotional accompaniment. The list of instincts arrived at by this procedure is much like that of McDougall, although the author is forced by his criteria to present the possibility of food-seeking and sex and sleep operating both in the manner of an appetite and also as an instinct. The Shand-McDougall concept of sentiment is taken over and used in the explanation of moral motivation. There is the development within each personality of a sentiment for some moral principle. But this sentiment is not a very powerful motivating factor. It is reinforced by social pressures and by religion, which is treated as an effort of finite man to live in harmony with the infinite reality. Those whose psychological thinking is largely in terms of McDougall will doubtless find this volume a very satisfying expansion; but those who are at all inclined to support their psychological thinking by reference to experimental studies will not be so well pleased. The James-Lange theory, for example, is discussed without mention of the many experimental studies which it has provoked. Theoretical sources appear in general to be preferred to experimental investigations.

Human MotivationThe Mind in Action: A Study of Motives and Values. A. Campbell Garnett

Many problems in the experimental estimation of parameters for models can be solved through use of the likelihood ratio test. Applications of the likelihood ratio, with particular attention to photon counting experiments, are discussed. The procedures presented solve a greater range of problems than those currently in use, yet are no more difficult to apply. The procedures are proved analytically, and examples from current problems in astronomy are discussed.

Parameter estimation in astronomy through application of the likelihood ratio. [satellite data analysis techniques

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered. In this article, we present a life-span theory of development based on the concept of control. Research on life-span development has become an increasingly active area of inquiry in the last two decades and has the potential of yielding fundamental theories about the emergence and transformation of human behavior over the life course (e.g., P. B. Baltes, 1987). However, as noted by Birren and Bengtson (1988), the field of life-course development and aging is at present best characterized as data rich but theory poor. Most existing developmental theories embrace limited temporal and functioning domains. With the exception of personality theorists such as Erikson, Loevinger, Gould, and Levinson (see Cavanaugh, 1990; Schulz & Ewen, 1993), psychologists have made few attempts to develop lifespan theories of development, in part because such efforts require the integration of information from multiple domains, including the behavioral, social, and biological sciences. A second formidable challenge posed by such an undertaking is the problem of level of analysis. Ideally, such a theory should explain both macro-level behaviors such as major life-course decisions

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/102/2/284.pdf

A life-span theory of control.

Neutron Stars 1: Equation of State and Structure

Young massive clusters are dense aggregates of young stars that form the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. Several examples exist in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group, but they are particularly abundant in starburst and interacting galaxies. The few young massive clusters that are close enough to resolve are of prime interest for studying the stellar mass function and the ecological interplay between stellar evolution and stellar dynamics. The distant unresolved clusters may be effectively used to study the star-cluster mass function, and they provide excellent constraints on the formation mechanisms of young cluster populations. Young massive clusters are expected to be the nurseries for many unusual objects, including a wide range of exotic stars and binaries. So far only a few such objects have been found in young massive clusters, although their older cousins, the globular clusters, are unusually rich in stellar exotica. In this review we focus on star clusters younger than $\sim100$ Myr, more than a few current crossing times old, and more massive than $\sim10^4$ \Msun, irrespective of cluster size or environment. We describe the global properties of the currently known young massive star clusters in the Local Group and beyond, and discuss the state of the art in observations and dynamical modeling of these systems. In order to make this review readable by observers, theorists, and computational astrophysicists, we also review the cross-disciplinary terminology.

/pdf/young-massive-star-clusters-1mlfusxprp.pdf

Young Massive Star Clusters

There exists both theoretical and observational evidence that the magnetic field decay in neutron stars may proceed in a pronounced non-linear way during a certain episode of the neutron star's life. In the presence of a strong magnetic field the Hall-drift dominates the field evolution in the crust and/or the superfluid core of neutron stars. Analysing observations of P and ˙ P for suciently old isolated pulsars we gain strong hints for a significantly non-linear magnetic field decay. Under certain conditions with respect to the geometry and strength of a large-scale magnetic background field an instability is shown to occur which rapidly raises small-scale magnetic field modes. Their growth rates increase with the background field strength and may reach10 4 times the ohmic decay rate. Consequences for the rotational and thermal evolution as well as for the cracking of the crust of neutron stars are discussed.

/pdf/non-linear-magnetic-field-decay-in-neutron-stars-theory-and-4h664qbl22.pdf

Non-linear magnetic field decay in neutron stars Theory and observations

/pdf/accretion-and-evolution-of-the-neutron-star-magnetic-field-5ec5t64b7q.pdf

Accretion and evolution of the neutron star magnetic field

There is growing evidence, based on both X-ray and radio observations of isolated neutron stars, that besides the large-scale (dipolar) magnetic field, which determines the pulsar spin-down behaviour, small-scale poloidal field components are present, which have surface strengths one to two orders of magnitude larger than the dipolar component. We argue in this paper that the Hall-eect can be an ecient process in producing such small-scale field structures just above the neutron star surface. It is shown that due to a Hall-drift induced instability, poloidal magnetic field structures can be generated from strong subsurface toroidal fields, which are the result of either a dynamo or a thermoelectric instability acting at early times of a neutron star's life. The geometrical structure of these small-scale surface anomalies of the magnetic field resembles that of some types of "star-spots". The magnetic field strength and the length-scales are comparable with values that can be derived from various observations.

/pdf/spot-like-structures-of-neutron-star-surface-magnetic-fields-io1shuk94m.pdf

Spot-like structures of neutron star surface magnetic fields

According to the partially screened gap scenario, an efficient electron-positron pair creation, a general precondition of radio-pulsar activity, relies on the existence of magnetic spots, i.e. local concentrations of strong and small-scale magnetic field structures at the surface of neutron stars. They have a strong impact on the surface temperature, which is potentially observable. Here, we reinforce the idea that such magnetic spots can be formed by extracting magnetic energy from the toroidal field that resides in deep crustal layers, via the Hall drift. We study and discuss the magnetothermal evolution of qualitatively different neutron star models and initial magnetic field configurations that lead to the creation of magnetic spots. We find that magnetic spots can be created on a time-scale of 104 yr with magnetic field strengths ≳5 × 1013 G, provided almost the whole magnetic energy is stored in its toroidal component, and that the conductivity in the inner crust is not too large. The lifetime of the magnetic spots is at least ˜one million years, being longer if the initial field permeates both core and crust.

Creation of magnetic spots at the neutron star surface

We consider the evolution of neutron stars during the X-ray phase of high-mass binaries. Calculationsareperformedassumingacrustal originofthemagneticfield.Astrongwindfrom the companion can significantly influence the magnetic and spin behaviour of a neutron star even during the main-sequence life of the companion. In the course of evolution, the neutron star passes through four evolutionary phases (‘isolated pulsar’, propeller, wind accretion, and Roche lobe overflow). The model considered can naturally account for the observed magnetic fields and spin periods of neutron stars, as well as the existence of pulsating and non-pulsating X-ray sources inhigh-mass binaries. Calculationsalso predict the existence of a particular sort of high-mass binary with a secondary that fills its Roche lobe and a neutron star that does not accrete the overflowing matter because of fast spin.

/pdf/evolution-of-neutron-stars-in-high-mass-x-ray-binaries-28u60dcaqk.pdf

Ulrich Geppert

Papers

Non-linear magnetic field decay in neutron stars Theory and observations

Accretion and evolution of the neutron star magnetic field

Spot-like structures of neutron star surface magnetic fields

Creation of magnetic spots at the neutron star surface

Evolution of neutron stars in high-mass X-ray binaries