In his Preface the author' says that he started out to review all the more important theories upon the topics ordinarily discussed under human motivation but soon found himself more and more limited to the presentation of his own point of view. This very well characterizes the book. It is a very personal product. It is an outline with some defense of the author's own thinking about instincts and appetites and sentiments and how they function in human behavior. And as the author draws so heavily upon James and McDougall, especially the latter, the book may well be looked upon as a sort of sequel to their efforts. There is a thought-provoking distinction presented between instinct and appetite. An instinct is said to be aroused always by something in the external situation; and, correspondingly, an appetite is said to be aroused by sensations from within the body itself. This places, of course, a heavy emphasis upon the cognitive factor in all instinctive behaviors; and the author prefers to use the cognitive factor, especially the knowledge of that end-experience which will satisfy, as a means of differentiating one instinct from another. In this there is a recognized difference from McDougall who placed more emphasis for differentiation upon the emotional accompaniment. The list of instincts arrived at by this procedure is much like that of McDougall, although the author is forced by his criteria to present the possibility of food-seeking and sex and sleep operating both in the manner of an appetite and also as an instinct. The Shand-McDougall concept of sentiment is taken over and used in the explanation of moral motivation. There is the development within each personality of a sentiment for some moral principle. But this sentiment is not a very powerful motivating factor. It is reinforced by social pressures and by religion, which is treated as an effort of finite man to live in harmony with the infinite reality. Those whose psychological thinking is largely in terms of McDougall will doubtless find this volume a very satisfying expansion; but those who are at all inclined to support their psychological thinking by reference to experimental studies will not be so well pleased. The James-Lange theory, for example, is discussed without mention of the many experimental studies which it has provoked. Theoretical sources appear in general to be preferred to experimental investigations.

Human MotivationThe Mind in Action: A Study of Motives and Values. A. Campbell Garnett

Many problems in the experimental estimation of parameters for models can be solved through use of the likelihood ratio test. Applications of the likelihood ratio, with particular attention to photon counting experiments, are discussed. The procedures presented solve a greater range of problems than those currently in use, yet are no more difficult to apply. The procedures are proved analytically, and examples from current problems in astronomy are discussed.

Parameter estimation in astronomy through application of the likelihood ratio. [satellite data analysis techniques

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered. In this article, we present a life-span theory of development based on the concept of control. Research on life-span development has become an increasingly active area of inquiry in the last two decades and has the potential of yielding fundamental theories about the emergence and transformation of human behavior over the life course (e.g., P. B. Baltes, 1987). However, as noted by Birren and Bengtson (1988), the field of life-course development and aging is at present best characterized as data rich but theory poor. Most existing developmental theories embrace limited temporal and functioning domains. With the exception of personality theorists such as Erikson, Loevinger, Gould, and Levinson (see Cavanaugh, 1990; Schulz & Ewen, 1993), psychologists have made few attempts to develop lifespan theories of development, in part because such efforts require the integration of information from multiple domains, including the behavioral, social, and biological sciences. A second formidable challenge posed by such an undertaking is the problem of level of analysis. Ideally, such a theory should explain both macro-level behaviors such as major life-course decisions

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/rev/102/2/284.pdf

A life-span theory of control.

Neutron Stars 1: Equation of State and Structure

Young massive clusters are dense aggregates of young stars that form the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. Several examples exist in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group, but they are particularly abundant in starburst and interacting galaxies. The few young massive clusters that are close enough to resolve are of prime interest for studying the stellar mass function and the ecological interplay between stellar evolution and stellar dynamics. The distant unresolved clusters may be effectively used to study the star-cluster mass function, and they provide excellent constraints on the formation mechanisms of young cluster populations. Young massive clusters are expected to be the nurseries for many unusual objects, including a wide range of exotic stars and binaries. So far only a few such objects have been found in young massive clusters, although their older cousins, the globular clusters, are unusually rich in stellar exotica. In this review we focus on star clusters younger than $\sim100$ Myr, more than a few current crossing times old, and more massive than $\sim10^4$ \Msun, irrespective of cluster size or environment. We describe the global properties of the currently known young massive star clusters in the Local Group and beyond, and discuss the state of the art in observations and dynamical modeling of these systems. In order to make this review readable by observers, theorists, and computational astrophysicists, we also review the cross-disciplinary terminology.

/pdf/young-massive-star-clusters-1mlfusxprp.pdf

Young Massive Star Clusters

We continue the study of the effects of a strong magnetic field on the temperature distribution in the crust of a magnetized neutron star (NS) and its impact on the observable surface temperature. Extending the approach initiated in Geppert et al.(2004), we consider more complex and, hence, more realistic, magnetic field structures but still restrict ourselves to axisymmetric configurations. We put special emphasis on the heat blanketing effect of a toroidal field component. We show that asymmetric temperature distributions can occur and a crustal field consisting of dipolar poloidal and toroidal components will cause one polar spot to be larger than the opposing one. These two warm regions can be separated by an extended cold equatorial belt. We present an internal magnetic field structure which can explain both the X-ray and optical spectra of the isolated NS RXJ 1856-3754. We investigate the effects of the resulting surface temperature profiles on the observable lightcurve which an isolated thermally emitting NS would produce for different field geometries. The lightcurves will be both qualitatively (deviations from sinusoidal shape) and quantitatively (larger pulsed fraction for the same observational geometry) different from those of a NS with an isothermal crust. This opens the possibility to determine the interna} magnetic field strengths and structures in NSs by modeling their X-ray lightcurves and spectra. The striking similarities of our model calculations with the observed spectra and pulse profiles of isolated thermally emitting NSs is an indication for the existence of strong magnetic field components maintained by crustal currents.

/pdf/temperature-distribution-in-magnetized-neutron-star-crusts-4aseputbc0.pdf

Temperature distribution in magnetized neutron star crusts. II. The effect of a strong toroidal component

We show the existence of a strong trend between neutron star (NS) surface temperature and the dipolar component of the magnetic field extending through three orders of field magnitude, a range that includes magnetars, radio-quiet isolated neutron stars, and many ordinary radio pulsars. We suggest that this trend can be explained by the decay of currents in the crust over a time scale of approximately 10(6) yr. We estimate the minimum temperature that a NS with a given magnetic field can reach in this interpretation.

Evidence for heating of neutron stars by magnetic-field decay.

Accretion-driven magnetic field decay in neutron stars

The 3-step DLR–ESA Gossamer road to solar sailing

We report the X-ray observations of two radio pulsars with drifting subpulses, B0834+06 and B0826?34, using XMM-Newton. PSR B0834+06 was detected with a total of 70 counts from the three EPIC instruments over 50 ks exposure time. Its spectrum is best described as that of a blackbody (BB), with temperature -->Ts = (2.0+ 2.0?0.9) ? 106 K and bolometric luminosity -->Lb = (8.6+ 14.2?4.4) ? 1028 erg s?1. As is typical in pulsars with BB thermal components in their X-ray spectra, the hot-spot surface area is much smaller than that of the canonical polar cap, implying a non-dipolar surface magnetic field much stronger than the dipolar component derived from the pulsar spin-down (in this case about 50 times smaller and stronger, respectively). The second pulsar, PSR B0826?34, was not detected over the 50 ks exposure time, giving an upper limit for the bolometric luminosity -->Lb ? 1.4 ? 1029 erg s?1. We use these data, as well as the radio emission data concerned with drifting subpulses, to test the partially screened gap (PSG) model of the inner accelerator in pulsars. This model predicts a simple and very intuitive relationship between the polar cap thermal X-ray luminosity ( -->Lb) and the carousel period ( -->P4) for drifting subpulses detected in the radio band. The PSG model has been previously successfully tested with four radio pulsars whose -->Lb and -->P4 were both measured: PSR B0943+10, PSR B1133+16, PSR B0656+14, and PSR B0628?28. The XMM-Newton X-ray data of PSR B0834+16 reported here are also in agreement with the model prediction, and the upper limit derived from the PSR B0826?34 observation does not contradict it. We also include two other pulsars, PSR B1929+10 and B1055?52, whose -->Lb and/or -->P4 data became available just recently. These pulsars also follow the prediction of the PSG model. The clear prediction of the PSG model is now supported by all pulsars whose -->Lb and -->P4 are measured and/or estimated.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/590657/pdf

Ulrich Geppert

Papers

Temperature distribution in magnetized neutron star crusts. II. The effect of a strong toroidal component

Evidence for heating of neutron stars by magnetic-field decay.

Accretion-driven magnetic field decay in neutron stars

The 3-step DLR–ESA Gossamer road to solar sailing

XMM-Newton Observations of Radio Pulsars B0834+06 and B0826?34 and Implications for the Pulsar Inner Accelerator