Critical issues in the theoretical and experimental analysis of interference processes in retention are reviewed. The evolution of classical two-factor theory is traced, and the strengths and weaknesses of the contemporary version of this p6sition are examined. Recent critiques of Current interference theories by Martin (1971a) and Greeno, James, and Da Polito (1971) are reviewed and examind. New conceptualizations of interference proposed by these authors, which place major emphasis on retrieval dependencies and on the role of encoding and retrieval processes, are considered and evaluated.

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Critical issues in interference theory

Arousal, learning, and memory.

Building on 2 previous studies (B. R. Ekstrand, 1967; B. R. Ekstrand, M. J. Sullivan, D. F. Parker, & J. N. West, 1971), the authors present 2 experiments that were aimed at characterizing the role of retroactive interference in sleep-associated declarative memory consolidation. Using an A-B, A-C paradigm with lists of word pairs in Experiment 1, the authors showed that sleep provides recovery from retroactive interference induced at encoding, whereas no such recovery was seen in several wake control conditions. Noninterfering word-pair lists were used in Experiment 2 (A-B, C-D). Sleeping after learning, in comparison with waking after learning, enhanced retention of both lists to a similar extent when encoding was less intense because of less list repetition and briefer word-pair presentations. With intense encoding, sleep-associated improvements were not seen for either list. In combination, the results indicate that the benefit of sleep for declarative memory consolidation is greater for weaker associations, regardless of whether weak associations result from retroactive interference or poor encoding.

Sleep's function in the spontaneous recovery and consolidation of memories.

Two pigeons were trained with sets of 70 pairs of color-slide stimuli in a same/different task to perform at least 88% correct; six different sets were used in successive acquisitions. The subjects transferred same/different performance to novel stimuli with 60% accuracy following their six acquisitions; further training and daily changes in the training stimuli revealed 71% transfer to novel stimuli. Four pigeons were trained (88% criterion) in a serial-probe-recognition task with three list items, and the list length was increased with successive acquisitions to four, five, and six list items. Their serial-position functions changed for different delays between the last list item and the test item revealing a recency effect (last items remembered well) for 0-s delay, recency and primacy effects (first items remembered well) for 1- and 2-s delays, and only a primacy effect for a 10-s delay. These results are discussed in relation to human memory performance and theories of memory processing generally.

Pigeon memory: same/different concept learning, serial probe recognition acquisition, and probe delay effects on the serial-position function

How is memory for a target event impaired by learning related events? The present experiment addressed the question by showing nature pictures (targets) that were followed by related pictures (experimental items) or by unrelated pictures (control items)

How memory for an event is influenced by related events: Interference in modified recognition tests.

Retroactive inhibition and spontaneous recovery in the A-B, D-C paradigm

Effects of semantic and acoustic relatedness on free recall and clustering

Word pairs varying in word association probability between members of the pairs were used to obtain judgements of similarity (JS) and three different sets of association strength judgements. Correlations between JS and associative judge-were low with the highest reaching.33. Correlations between JS and normative association strength were also low. Some correlations between associative judgements and normative values were high with the correlation between bi-directional associative judgements and bi-directional norms reaching .98.

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The relationships between judged similarity, judged association, and normative association

The relative fates of human learning and memory as research topics in psychology were assessed by an analysis of titles published from 1962 to 1982. Publications were classified as “learning” or “memory” on the basis of titular descriptions provided by authors of the respective publications. Results indicated that, whereas researchers in 1962 were predominantly concerned with learning, rather than memory, a significant reversal occurred over the ensuing 10 years (p <.001). The subsequent 10 years, however, may be characterized as a period of stability.

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Publication trends in human learning and memory: 1962-1982

Data reported by Butter (1970, Experiment II) indicate that effects of stimulus concreteness-imagery on incidental recall may reverse over a long retention interval. Consistent with previous results, Butter also found a reversal of stimulus-arousal effects over time. In the present attempt to replicate Butter’s findings, no reversal was found for either the concreteness-imagery or arousal variable. A strong concreteness-imagery main effect was found, however, with high stimulus concreteness-imagery facilitating recall on both immediate and delayed tests.

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William E. Forrester

Papers

Retroactive inhibition and spontaneous recovery in the A-B, D-C paradigm

Effects of semantic and acoustic relatedness on free recall and clustering

The relationships between judged similarity, judged association, and normative association

Publication trends in human learning and memory: 1962-1982

Effects of stimulus concreteness-imagery and arousal on immediate and delayed recall