The study of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has the potential to identify unknown cellular and molecular mechanisms in intercellular communication and in organ homeostasis and disease. Exosomes, with an average diameter of ~100 nanometers, are a subset of EVs. The biogenesis of exosomes involves their origin in endosomes, and subsequent interactions with other intracellular vesicles and organelles generate the final content of the exosomes. Their diverse constituents include nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, amino acids, and metabolites, which can reflect their cell of origin. In various diseases, exosomes offer a window into altered cellular or tissue states, and their detection in biological fluids potentially offers a multicomponent diagnostic readout. The efficient exchange of cellular components through exosomes can inform their applied use in designing exosome-based therapeutics.

The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated as by-products of cellular metabolism, primarily in the mitochondria. When cellular production of ROS overwhelms its antioxidant capacity, damage to cellular macromolecules such as lipids, protein, and DNA may ensue. Such a state of “oxidative stress” is thought to contribute to the pathogenesis of a number of human diseases including those of the lung. Recent studies have also implicated ROS that are generated by specialized plasma membrane oxidases in normal physiological signaling by growth factors and cytokines. In this review, we examine the evidence for ligand-induced generation of ROS, its cellular sources, and the signaling pathways that are activated. Emerging concepts on the mechanisms of signal transduction by ROS that involve alterations in cellular redox state and oxidative modifications of proteins are also discussed.

Reactive oxygen species in cell signaling

Foxo Transcription Factors Induce the Atrophy-Related Ubiquitin Ligase Atrogin-1 and Cause Skeletal Muscle Atrophy

This review provides the reader with the up-to-date evidence-based basis for prescribing exercise as medicine in the treatment of 26 different diseases: psychiatric diseases (depression, anxiety, stress, schizophrenia); neurological diseases (dementia, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis); metabolic diseases (obesity, hyperlipidemia, metabolic syndrome, polycystic ovarian syndrome, type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes); cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, cerebral apoplexy, and claudication intermittent); pulmonary diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, cystic fibrosis); musculo-skeletal disorders (osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, back pain, rheumatoid arthritis); and cancer. The effect of exercise therapy on disease pathogenesis and symptoms are given and the possible mechanisms of action are discussed. We have interpreted the scientific literature and for each disease, we provide the reader with our best advice regarding the optimal type and dose for prescription of exercise.

/pdf/exercise-as-medicine-evidence-for-prescribing-exercise-as-4ap89k53ch.pdf

Exercise as medicine – evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in 26 different chronic diseases

Leu-M

Atrogin1/MAFbx is an ubiquitin ligase that mediates muscle atrophy in a variety of catabolic states. We recently found that H2O2 stimulates atrogin1/MAFbx gene expression. Since the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) stimulates both reactive oxygen production and general activity of the ubiquitin conjugating pathway, we hypothesized that TNF-alpha would also increase atrogin1/MAFbx gene expression. As with H2O2, we found that TNF-alpha exposure up-regulates atrogin1/MAFbx mRNA within 2 h in C2C12 myotubes. Intraperitoneal injection of TNF-alpha increased atrogin1/MAFbx mRNA in skeletal muscle of adult mice within 4 h. Exposing myotubes to either TNF-alpha or H2O2 also produced general activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs): p38, ERK1/2, and JNK. The increase in atrogin1/MAFbx gene expression induced by TNF-alpha was not altered significantly by ERK inhibitor PD98059 or the JNK inhibitor SP600125. In contrast, atrogin1/MAFbx up-regulation and the associated increase in ubiquitin conjugating activity were both blunted by p38 inhibitors, either SB203580 or curcumin. These data suggest that TNF-alpha acts via p38 to increase atrogin1/MAFbx gene expression in skeletal muscle.

/pdf/tnf-a-acts-via-p38-mapk-to-stimulate-expression-of-the-546vyqslm0.pdf

TNF-α acts via p38 MAPK to stimulate expression of the ubiquitin ligase atrogin1/MAFbx in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle atrophy and weakness are thought to be stimulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) in a variety of chronic diseases. However, little is known about the direct effects of TNF-alpha on differentiated skeletal muscle cells or the signaling mechanisms involved. We have tested the effects of TNF-alpha on the mouse-derived C2C12 muscle cell line and on primary cultures from rat skeletal muscle. TNF-alpha treatment of differentiated myotubes stimulated time- and concentration-dependent reductions in total protein content and loss of adult myosin heavy chain (MHCf) content; these changes were evident at low TNF-alpha concentrations (1-3 ng/ml) that did not alter muscle DNA content and were not associated with a decrease in MHCf synthesis. TNF-alpha activated binding of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) to its targeted DNA sequence and stimulated degradation of I-kappaBalpha, an NF-kappaB inhibitory protein. TNF-alpha stimulated total ubiquitin conjugation whereas a 26S proteasome inhibitor (MG132 10-40 microM) blocked TNF-alpha activation of NF-kappaB. Catalase 1 kU/ml inhibited NF-kappaB activation by TNF-alpha; exogenous hydrogen peroxide 200 microM activated NF-kappaB and stimulated I-kappaBalpha degradation. These data demonstrate that TNF-alpha directly induces skeletal muscle protein loss, that NF-kappaB is rapidly activated by TNF-alpha in differentiated skeletal muscle cells, and that TNF-alpha/NF-kappaB signaling in skeletal muscle is regulated by endogenous reactive oxygen species.

https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1096/fasebj.12.10.971

Skeletal muscle myocytes undergo protein loss and reactive oxygen-mediated NF-κB activation in response to tumor necrosis factor α

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) regulates the transcription of a variety of genes involved in immune responses, cell growth, and cell death. However, the role of NF-κB in muscle biology is poorly underst...

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.4.R1165

NF-κB mediates the protein loss induced by TNF-α in differentiated skeletal muscle myotubes

Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is a polypeptide cytokine that has been associated with muscle wasting and weakness in inflammatory disease. Despite its potential importance in muscle pathology, the direct effects of TNF-α on skeletal muscle have remained undefined until recently. Studies of cultured muscle cells indicate that TNF-α disrupts the differentiation process and can promote catabolism in mature cells. The latter response appears to be mediated by reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor-κB which upregulate ubiquitin/proteasome activity. This commentary outlines our current understanding of TNF-α effects on skeletal muscle and the mechanism of TNF-α action.

/pdf/tumor-necrosis-factor-a-and-muscle-wasting-a-cellular-2upt9xwzqc.pdf

Tumor necrosis factor-α and muscle wasting: a cellular perspective

/pdf/commentary-tumor-necrosis-factor-a-and-muscle-wasting-a-30eem177ny.pdf

Yi-Ping Li

Papers

TNF-α acts via p38 MAPK to stimulate expression of the ubiquitin ligase atrogin1/MAFbx in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle myocytes undergo protein loss and reactive oxygen-mediated NF-κB activation in response to tumor necrosis factor α

NF-κB mediates the protein loss induced by TNF-α in differentiated skeletal muscle myotubes

Tumor necrosis factor-α and muscle wasting: a cellular perspective

Commentary Tumor necrosis factor-α and muscle wasting: a cellular perspective