Showing papers by "Center for Global Development published in 2003"

Addressing the Natural Resource Curse: An Illustration from Nigeria

Abstract: Some natural resources - oil and minerals in particular - exert a negative and nonlinear impact on growth via their deleterious impact on institutional quality. We show this result to be very robust. The Nigerian experience provides telling confirmation of this aspect of natural resources. Waste and poor institutional quality stemming from oil appear to have been primarily responsible for Nigeria's poor long-run economic performance. We propose a solution for addressing this resource curse which involves directly distributing the oil revenues to the public. Even with all the difficulties that will no doubt plague its actual implementation, our proposal will, at the least, be vastly superior to the status quo. At best, however, it could fundamentally improve the quality of public institutions and, as a result, durably raise long-run growth performance.

Most eGovernment-for-Development Projects Fail: How Can Risks be Reduced?

Abstract: eGovernment can make a valuable contribution to development. However, at present, the majority of e-government-for-development projects fail either totally or partially. This paper explains the underlying cause of failure: the oversize gaps between project design and on-the-ground reality (known as 'design-reality gaps'). The dimensions of these gaps are identified, as are archetypal situations in which failure is likely to occur. The paper then provides a step-by-step guide to identifying and addressing failure risks for e-government projects. It concludes with a real-world case study of using the design-reality gap approach to reduce risks in an e-government project.

Presidentialism and clientelism in Africa's emerging party systems

Abstract: This paper analyses the parties and party systems that have begun to emerge in sub-Saharan Africa's fledgling multiparty systems. Using a data base of 87 legislative elections convened in the 1990s, the paper identifies three trends. The position of parties late in the decade is primarily tributary of their performance in the first multiparty election conducted in the early 1990s. Parties that won founding elections are almost invariably still in power. Secondly, the typical emerging party system has consisted of a dominant party surrounded by a large number of small, unstable parties. Thirdly, party cleavages have been overwhelmingly ethno-linguistic in nature, while ideological and programmatic debates have been muted and rare. The second half of the paper provides tentative explanations for these striking patterns. It emphasises the illiberal nature of most of the new African democracies, their characteristic centralisation of power around the presidency, and the pervasive clientelism that structures the relationship between the state and the citizenry. These characteristics shape the incentives faced by individual politicians and thus much of their behaviour.

Chronic Poverty: Meanings and Analytical Frameworks

Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the meaning of 'chronic poverty,' and identifies frameworks for analysing it, as understood by the Chronic Poverty Research Centre (CPRC) during the initial stages of research. After an introduction to the CPRC, the second section briefly reviews the major frameworks for conceptualising, defining, explaining, and measuring poverty in its broader sense, and relates these to the study of chronic poverty. It is suggested that research undertaken by CPRC should focus on poverty in its broadest, multi-dimensional sense, and that those who are chronically poor are likely to be poor in several ways, not only in terms of income. At the same time, the analysis of money-metric and other quantitative indicators are the primary means by which study of chronic poverty is presently undertaken, and will continue to have an important role to play in research. Our understanding of chronic poverty is also likely to draw upon notions of both absolute and relative poverty, vulnerability, social exclusion, and capabilities and freedoms, as well as upon subjective assessments by the poor themselves. In the third section, the characteristics of chronic poverty are presented. Long duration is identified as both necessary and sufficient for poverty to be considered chronic. It is hypothesised that chronic poverty will also often be multi-dimensional and severe. It is proposed that a five-tiered categorisation of the poor be adopted - always poor, usually poor, churning poor, occasionally poor and never poor - and that transitions between different levels over time be closely monitored. It is suggested that the tightest possible definition of chronic poverty would be intergenerationally transmitted (IGT) poverty, which is likely to be relatively intractable and therefore likely to escape current poverty reduction efforts. In this way, IGT poverty is both a characteristic and cause of chronic poverty. The subsection on IGT poverty draws upon the literature surrounding the intergenerational transfer of different capitals. This is followed by an analysis of the ways in which severity and multi-dimensionality are often characteristics of chronic poverty, and a brief review of the relevance of the World Bank's Voices of the Poor studies to an understanding of chronic poverty. The final two subsections argue that the chronically poor are a heterogeneous group. There are several sets of people who are particularly susceptible to chronic poverty, and that are likely to experience multiple and overlapping vulnerabilities. These groups include those experiencing deprivation because of their stage in the life cycle, those discriminated against because of their social position in the community or household, those with health problems and impairments, and people living in remote rural areas, urban ghettos and regions where prolonged violent conflict and insecurity have occurred. In the fourth section, the causes of chronic poverty at different levels of analysis are explored, and analytical frameworks for their understanding are laid down - quantitative panel data analysis; livelihoods analysis; freedoms; social and political exclusion; and policy analysis frameworks, which include consideration of avoiding the negative impacts of development which help to extend and deepen poverty for the poor. The final two sections bring together the preceding work and discuss the implications of our initial understanding of chronic poverty for future research.

Insecurity and welfare regimes in Asia, Africa and Latin America

Abstract: Written by a team of internationally respected experts, this book explores the conditions under which social policy, defined as the public pursuit of secure welfare, operates in the poorer regions of the world. Social policy in advanced capitalist countries operates through state intervention to compensate for the inadequate welfare outcomes of the labour market. Such welfare regimes cannot easily be reproduced in poorer regions of the world where states suffer problems of governance and labour markets are imperfect and partial. Other welfare regimes therefore prevail involving non-state actors such as landlords, moneylenders and patrons. This book seeks to develop a conceptual framework for understanding different types of welfare regime in a range of countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa and makes an important contribution to the literature by breaking away from the traditional focus on Europe and North America.

Living with flexible exchange rates: issues and recent experience in inflation targeting emerging market economies

Abstract: This overview paper examines two main issues. The first is why the exchange rate matters, potentially for all economies, but especially for emerging market economies. The second is under what circumstances and how have emerging market economies that target inflation dealt with the various challenges presented by exchange rate fluctuations in recent years. We find that emerging market economies, being more exposed to the effects of exchange rate movements, are likely to have exchange rate considerations figure more prominently in policy decisions. However, this is not to suggest that attending to the exchange rate is relevant only to emerging market economies. Recent experience serves as a clear reminder that having to keep an eye on the exchange rate is also a fact of life in industrial economies, inflation targeting or not.

The 10(5) bacterial growth guideline: reassessing its clinical relevance in wound healing.

Abstract: The microbiology of wounds is a key determinant in healing and clinicians generally accept that a level of microbial (ie, bacterial) growth greater than 100,000 viable organisms per gram of tissue can be used to diagnose infection. Although other factors that predispose a wound to infection are widely recognized, today's wound care practitioners are influenced primarily by the 10 5 guideline, with treatment being based on the microbial count in deep or superficial tissue. However, to appropriately manage microbially challenged wounds (eg, heavily colonized and clinically infected), a more balanced awareness of the broader issues relating to micro-organisms and wounds is needed. The types of micro-organisms, their interactions with each other and with the wound environment, the local conditions, and host resistance are all key factors that collectively influence healing. From a microbiological perspective, successful wound healing is dependent on maintaining a host-manageable bioburden. If local conditions favor microbial growth, a wound may fail to heal and become infected, requiring topical antiseptics or antibiotics to supplement the host inflammatory response and restore balance in favor of the host. This paper provides a critical examination of the 10 5 guideline to enhance clinician understanding and utilization of a commonly applied diagnostic consideration.

[Draft ICH guideline S7B: guideline on safety pharmacology studies for assessing the potential for delayed ventricular repolarization (QT interval prolongation) by human pharmaceuticals].

Abstract: Nonclinical assessment of potential of QT interval prolongation caused by non-antiarrhythmic drugs has been an issue for drug development because QT interval prolongation increases the risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmia, including torsade de pointes when combined with other risk factors. However, there is no scientific consensus on approaches and no international consensus on regulatory recommendations. This guideline is being developed to provide the general nonclinical testing strategy for evaluating the potential risk of QT prolongation and presents some major principles for in vitro and in vivo electrophysiology studies. The basis of this guideline is the integrated risk assessment that provides overall evaluations based on nonclinical study results and chemical/pharmacological class information to predict the potential of a test substance to prolong QT interval in humans (i.e., evidence of risk) and that contributes clinical study design and interpretation of clinical results. Safety margins are also components of integrated risk assessment. Since this guideline addresses a field of research that is in a state of rapid evolution, the proposed concept for evidence of risk and safety margins needs to be further refined based on the data being collected by international initiatives. In this article, the draft S7B guideline is outlined.

Importance of moisture balance at the wound-dressing interface.

Abstract: This paper considers the significance of achieving the correct moisture balance--neither too moist nor too dry--at the wound-dressing interface and discusses the importance of using new dressing formats designed with this in mind.

The WTO Promotes Trade, Strongly But Unevenly

Abstract: Contrary to the recent literature that concludes that the GATT/WTO has been completely ineffective in promoting world trade, this paper furnishes robust evidence that the institution has had a powerful and positive impact on trade. The impact has, however, been uneven. GATT/WTO membership for industrial countries has been associated with a large increase in imports estimated at about 44 percent of world trade. The same has not been true for developing country members, although those that joined after the Uruguay Round have benefited from increased imports. Similarly, there has been an asymmetric impact between sectors. These results are consistent with the history and design of the institution.

Effects of food and antacid on the pharmacokinetics of single doses of mycophenolate mofetil in rheumatoid arthritis patients

Abstract: 1. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is a prodrug of mycophenolic acid (MPA) and is being developed for the prevention of rejection following solid organ transplantation. This crossover study investigated the effect of food and antacid (Maalox TC) on the plasma pharmacokinetics of MPA and its inactive glucuronide metabolite MPAG after giving single 2 g MMF doses orally to rheumatoid arthritis patients. 2. With food, the AUC of MPA in plasma was equivalent to that following an overnight fast. MPA tmax was slightly delayed and Cmax was lowered about 25%, consistent with delay in gastric emptying in the fed state. MPAG Cmax and AUC were higher in the fed relative to the fasting state, suggesting more complex processes involving changes in glucuronidation may also be occurring with food. 3. With antacid, AUC of MPA was lowered about 15% compared with fasting and Cmax was decreased 37%. Plasma MPAG parameters were similarly reduced. These parallel changes in MPA and MPAG are consistent with reduced absorption. 4. The changes in MPA with both food and antacid are small in comparison with the interpatient variability and are not likely to have clinically major effects; the changes in MPAG are of mechanistic interest.

Safety and pharmacology of oseltamivir in clinical use.

Abstract: Oseltamivir is a novel agent approved for the treatment and prevention of influenza infection and illnesses in adults and children. Assessment of data from the clinical trial programme, a US health insurance database study and postmarketing surveillance allowed a comprehensive review of the safety of oseltamivir in clinical use in subjects >1 year of age. Oseltamivir has been studied over the course of a 5-year development programme in >11000 subjects from North America, Europe and the Southern Hemisphere, including otherwise healthy adults, approximately 500 elderly/high-risk subjects, and children (>1000) aged 1-12 years. Safety evaluations included treatment-emergent adverse events, hospitalisations and deaths, as well as haematological and biochemical laboratory safety tests. The data reveals that oseltamivir has simple, uncomplicated pharmacology and lacks potential for drug-drug interactions. Electrocardiogram parameters, including corrected QT interval, were unaffected by oseltamivir even at high doses. Postmarketing studies confirmed that transient gastrointestinal disturbance is the major adverse effect of oseltamivir and that this can be reduced by taking oseltamivir after a light snack. On treatment serious adverse events were reported in 1.3% of oseltamivir 75mg twice daily, 0.7% of oseltamivir 150 mg twice daily and 1.2% of placebo recipients, respectively, in the clinical trial programme. Postmarketing, it is estimated that, to date, over 4 million oseltamivir prescriptions have been dispensed worldwide. Approximately 2300 spontaneous reports were received by the manufacturer over the three winter seasons of use. As these events are reported infrequently and from an unknown number of users, it is not possible to definitively assess causality or frequency of reported events. Most reports were of gastrointestinal and skin reactions. However, a clear association between the skin reactions and oseltamivir has not been established. A large study of insurance records, which permitted the assessment of the relative risk of medical events treated in the month following prescription of oseltamivir in general use, showed no evidence of increased risk of cardiac, neuropsychiatric or respiratory events for those receiving oseltamivir compared with those who did not. To conclude, no important safety concerns have evolved which might limit the suitability of oseltamivir for the treatment and prevention of influenza in all patient populations.

From conflict to recovery in Africa

Abstract: PART I: THEMES 1. Introduction and Overview 2. From Conflict to Recovery? PART II: RECONSTRUCTING COMMUNITIES 3. From Humanitarian Assistance to Poverty Reduction in Angola 4. Rebuilding Rural Livelihoods and Social Capital in Mozambique 5. Displaced Communities and the Reconstruction of Livelihoods in Eritrea 6. Demobilization, Land, and Household Livelihoods in Ethiopia 7. Selecting Priorities for Poverty Reduction and Human Development in Ethiopia PART III: REVITALIZING PRIVATE SECTORS 8. Angola's Incomplete Transition 9. The Agrarian Question in Mozambique's Transition and Reconstruction 10. Privatization and Economic Strategy in Mozambique 11. Ethiopia's New Financial Sector and its Regulation PART IV: TRANSFORMING STATES 12. Building New States: Lessons from Eritrea 13. Reconstruction, Reform, and State Capacity in Guinea-Bissau 14. The Fiscal Dimensions of Ethiopia's Transition and Reconstruction 15. Overcoming the Fiscal Crisis of the African State PART V: CONCLUSIONS 16. Communities, Private Sectors, and States

What has luck got to do with it? A regional analysis of poverty and agricultural growth in rural India

Abstract: This article explores the role of agro-ecological factors associated with agricultural growth and poverty outcomes in India. Using a new operationalisation of agro-ecological factors and incorporating within-State variations in poverty and other variables we show that agricultural growth and poverty reduction appear to depend on underlying agro-ecological conditions which are favourable to the spread of irrigation and hence agricultural development, which in turn in associated with poverty reduction. Promotion of agriculture in less favoured areas in unlikely to have similar effects on agriculture in less favoured areas is unlikely to have similar effects on agricultural growth even if the effects of agricultural growth on poverty remain similar, unless conditions for irrigation are favourable or rainfall is sufficiently abundant and reliable. This suggests that considerable caution may be needed in drawing policy conclusions from empirical analysis by state alone, and without regard to their underlying f...

Privatisation and economic growth in developing countries

Abstract: This article re-examines the relation between privatisation and economic growth. Previous studies that have attempted to measure this relationship have concluded that privatisation has had a sizeable positive effect on economic growth. Our study uses data for 63 developing countries over the time period 1988–97. It uses the framework of an extreme-bounds analysis (EBA) to conduct a cross-country growth regression analysis. Our findings contradict earlier results, but reaffirm the view that effective competition and its regulation may need to accompany privatisation to make a positive impact on economic growth.

Economic Policy and Wage Differentials in Latin America

Abstract: This paper applies a new approach to the estimation of the impact of policy, both the levels and the changes, on wage differentials using a new high-quality data set on wage differentials by schooling level for 18 Latin American countries for the period 1977-1998. The results indicate that liberalizing policy changes overall have had a short-run disequalizing effect of expanding wage differentials, although this effect tends to fade away over time. This disequalizing effect is due to the strong impact of domestic financial market reform, capital account liberalization and tax reform. On the other hand, privatization contributed to narrowing wage differentials and trade openness had no significant effect on wage differentials. Technological progress, rather than trade flows, appears to be a channel through which policy changes are affecting inequality.

Privatization in Latin America

Abstract: In Latin America, privatization started earlier and spread farther and more rapidly than in almost any other part of the world. More, and larger, firms were sold, and more proceeds were raised. Despite positive microeconomic results, privatization is highly and increasingly unpopular in the region. The core social criticism is that privatization contributes to growing poverty and inequality levels in Latin America-and circumstantial evidence supports the claim. But recent and rigorous studies dilute or counter the negative views, concluding that privatization has contributed only slightly to rising unemployment and inequality,and either reduces poverty or has no effect on it. Still, while privatization may be winning the economic battle it is losing the political war: The benefits are spread widely, small for each affected consumer or taxpayer, and occur (or accrue) in the medium-term. In contrast, the costs are large for those concerned, who tend to be visible, vocal, urban and organized, a potent political combination.

Gendering teamwork: Re-writing the feminine

Abstract: Recognizing the neglect of gender in the prescriptive and critical fields of teamwork, this article explores the gendered processes of teams. The argument presented in this article challenges masculinist discourse inherent in team theorizing and empirical research. This masculinism, we argue, stems from the so-called gender-neutral performance criteria and practices of team organization and management. Analysing The Wisdom of Teams (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993) highlights the implicit gendering processes of the team rhetoric. To illuminate the latent gendered practices a case study, Nylons, is discussed. Both methods of analysis unveil the dominance of masculinist discourses that subjugates and suppresses femaleness and femininity. The article concludes by highlighting areas for furthering critical debates in the teamwork arena that centre on analysing the complex and ambiguous power relations that influence, and are influenced by, the construction and re-construction of gendered identities in teamwork and the gendered relations of power in teamwork practice.

The Political Economy of Chronic Poverty

Abstract: This paper critically analyses the relationship between political economy and the incidence of poverty. It argues that far from globalisation providing widespread opportunities for the poor in the short to medium term, the level of global poverty is likely to increase in absolute terms, both in terms of incidence and depth. This is because many of the poorest countries are involved in a historic transition from rural smallholder agriculture to urban industrial machino-facture, and are currently undergoing a rapid process of proletarianisation. However, some of these transitions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, are stalled or reversing due to differential incorporation in globalisation processes. It is not only unlikely that the international targets for poverty reduction will be met, but probable that the period to 2015 will see an increase in absolute poverty. However, this is not because of the widespread ?exclusion? of the poor from integration into the global economy, but rather as a result of their integration on adverse terms, whereby ?exclusion? is better understood as adverse, differential incorporation. This adverse incorporation occurs at two levels: at the micro level within the labour regime in terms of available formal work, working conditions and remuneration; and at the macro-economy level where premiums for investment funds are disproportionately higher for the poorest countries. The outcome of globalisation processes is illustrated in this paper by an examination of the commercialisation of agriculture and its differential impacts on relative and absolute poverty. The case study illustrates how agricultural modernisation creates a group of newly destitute people as a corollary of increased wealth stratification. The commercialisation of agriculture often increases levels of transitory, relative poverty and raises the likelihood that some segments of society will be pushed into chronic poverty. The paper then problematises possible policy action, theoretical and actually existing, within the context of harnessing ?political economy? measures on behalf of poverty reduction, by means of redistributive political action. While it remains difficult to trace the global economy causation of poverty dynamics at the micro-level, it is possible to extrapolate broad poverty outcomes from the social trends associated with globalisation. The paper argues that processes of accumulation cause immiseration for some, increased inequality, and geographical abjection, which are currently insufficiently ameliorated by policy action. The contemporary policy orthodoxy of economic liberalisation, social safety nets and empowerment fails to recognise the radical policies, of redistribution and global regulation, that are needed to tackle the processes within capitalism that create and sustain poverty. The paper proposes that further research be undertaken to review the success or otherwise of government policy to asset the poor by means of redistribution of economic rights and rents.

What Is the Impact of Non-Contributory Pensions on Poverty? Estimates from Brazil and South Africa

Abstract: This paper considers the impact of cash transfer programmes for the old in Brazil and South Africa on poverty among households with older people Using datasets collected specifically for the purpose, the paper constructs conditional and unconditional estimates of the poverty reduction capacity of these programmes The paper finds that non-contributory pensions have a measurable and significant impact upon poverty reduction and poverty prevention in the two countries studied

The Millennium Challenge Account: How Much is Too Much, How Long is Long Enough?

Abstract: The US government's proposed $5 billion Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) could provide upwards of $250-$300m or more per year per country in new development assistance to a small number of poor countries judged to have relatively "good" policies and institutions. Could this assistance be too much of a good thing and strain the absorptive capacity of recipient countries to use the funds effectively? Empirical evidence from the past 40 years of development assistance suggests that in most potential MCA countries, the sheer quantity of MCA money is unlikely to overwhelm the ability of recipients to use it well, if the funds are delivered effectively. There may be a small number of potential recipients, mostly very small economies already receiving substantial amounts of aid, in which MCA money might be so bountiful as to surpass recipient governments' absorptive capacity. Strong monitoring and evaluation is the key to detecting and correcting possible absorptive capacity problems, rather than ad-hoc rules limiting the amount of assistance. Where problems do arise, funds should be re-allocated to other activities within the country or to other MCA countries, or the list of countries qualifying for the MCA could be expanded slightly to include a small number of additional countries that may be able to use the funds effectively. We also explore the length of time that the USG should be prepared to continue to fund MCA countries, and how recipients might exit from MCA funding over time. We look back at two dozen "good policy" countries that previously were very poor but have grown and developed after receiving large amounts of aid, one might call them the ideal MCA candidates of the 1970s. Their experience suggests that (1) unlike some other countries, they used aid well, and (2) these "best case scenarios" required stable and moderately sizeable aid commitments lasting decades. This experience suggests that even the best performing of the MCA countries are likely to require significant assistance for many years. The idea of a brief, big-bang "Marshall Plan" for developing countries in which the MCA provides a large amount of funding for a short period of time in hopes of igniting rapid development is probably wishful thinking.

Pharmacokinetics of anti-influenza prodrug oseltamivir in children aged 1-5 years.

Abstract: The prodrug oseltamivir has been shown to be efficacious and safe for the treatment of influenza for patients 1 year of age or older; however, pharmacokinetic information was lacking for children below 5 years of age. This study was conducted to assess the metabolic and excretory capacity of oseltamivir and its active carboxylate metabolite in young children. Twelve healthy children aged 1–5 years received a single oral suspension dose of oseltamivir (45 mg for 3–5 years, 30 mg for 1–2 years). Plasma and urine concentrations of oseltamivir and the carboxylate were determined by means of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Mean peak plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration–time curve values normalized to milligram per kilogram oseltamivir dose in the 1- to 2-year group are lower than those in the 3- to 5-year group. Mean body weight normalized oral clearance of oseltamivir and its carboxylate in younger subjects aged 1–2 years (259 ml/min/kg and 12.2 ml/min/kg) were, respectively, 52% and 30% higher than those in older subjects aged 3–5 years (170 ml/min/kg and 9.4 ml/min/kg). The results demonstrate that infants as young as 1 year old can metabolize and excrete oseltamivir efficiently. The data derived from this study provide the starting dose of oseltamivir for further investigation in an efficacy study among influenza-infected infants less than 1 year of age.

Once More into the Breach: Economic Growth and Integration

Abstract: This paper re-examines the evidence linking poor growth during the era of import substituting industrialization with trade restrictions. Recent work, notably Rodriguez and Rodrik (2000), asserts that all the evidence is fragile, implying that economists who believe that trade restrictions played a role in this poor performance do so largely on faith. This paper argues that this criticism ignores crucial evidence and tests regression specifications that are either not relevant for the question or are bound to have low statistical power. After revising and updating measures of trade openness used in Sachs and Warner (1995), the weight of the evidence argues that trade restrictions were indeed harmful to growth during this period. While there is certainly room for debate about how best to use the available data on trade restrictions, a large number of variants yield strong and consistent results. Furthermore, although some assert that it is impossible to empirically distinguish measures of trade restriction from other policies or institutions, the findings are not diminished even after controlling for many alternative economic policies or institutions.

Free-stream turbulence effects on the instantaneous pressure and forces on cylinders of rectangular cross section

Abstract: Simultaneous measurements of instantaneous pressure distributions on rectangular cylinders of length to height ratio(B/D) of 1.0, 2.5 and 3.0 in smooth nonturbulent and homogeneous turbulent flows were made and the data were analyzed by phase averaging and spectral analysis in addition to more conventional methods. The turbulence in the inflow stream is nearly homogeneous and isotropic with the intensity and the scale of 5% and 1.2–1.5 times the cylinder height, respectively. The main effects of the turbulence in the inflow free stream of this scale and intensity are to laterally move the separated shear flow off the upstream corners and cause intermittent reattachment on the side surfaces of cylinders of B/D of 2.5 and larger. For the cylinder with smaller B/D, the flow does not reattach with or without turbulence in the free stream, and the instantaneous surface pressure distributions fluctuate quite periodically at a frequency corresponding to the Strouhal frequency of the vortex shedding. The effects of the free-stream turbulence appear in the increased fluctuation on the front surface as buffeting due to the impinging turbulence. When the separated shear layers reattach due to the influence of the free-stream turbulence, the reattachment point moves intermittently, the pressure distributions downstream of the reattachment fluctuate periodically, and a mild peak is formed in the spectra at a frequency much larger than the Strouhal frequency.

Extending Social Protection to Informal Workers in the Horticulture Global Value Chain

Abstract: Social Protection Discussion Papers are not formal publications of the World Bank. They present preliminary and unpolished results of analysis that are circulated to encourage discussion and comment; citation and the use of such a paper should take account of its provisional character. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.