Showing papers in "Agricultural Engineering International: The CIGR Journal in 2013"

Detection of unhealthy region of plant leaves and classification of plant leaf diseases using texture features

Abstract: P lant diseases have turned into a dilemma as it can cause significant reduction in both quality and quantity of agricultural products. Automatic detection of plant diseases is an essential research topic as it may prove benefits in monitoring large fields of crops, and thus automatically detect the symptoms of diseases as soon as they appear on plant leaves. The proposed system is a software solution for automatic detection and classification of plant leaf diseases. The developed processing scheme consists of four main steps, first a color transformation structure for the input RGB image is created, then the green pixels are masked and removed using specific threshold value followed by segmentation process, the texture statistics are computed for the useful segments, finally the extracted features are passed through the classifier. The proposed algorithm’s efficiency can successfully detect and classify the examined diseases with an accuracy of 94%. Experimental results on a database of about 500 plant leaves confirm the robustness of the proposed approach. Keywords: HSI, c olor c o-occurrence m atrix, t exture, SVM, p lant leaf diseases

Investigation of the methane potential of horse manure.

Abstract: During recent years the renewable energy production with agricultural biomass became more and more important. The increased use of agricultural products instead for nutrition aroused a debate. Therefore, the utilization of agricultural byproducts and residuals for anaerobic digestion is the essential step for the future sustainable energy production. One available substrate would be horse manure, but literature is still lacking information about gas potential and digestibility of horse manure in biogas plants. This work aims at investigating the suitability of horse manure with different bedding materials and to produce standard values for different horse manure samples. Additionally the methane yields of the components of the horse manure were analyzed. The results of the batch digestion test showed the highest specific methane yields for straw pellets with 0.247 Nm³ CH 4 kg -1 VS. Slightly lower are the values for the straw samples in range of 0.183 to 0.237 Nm³ CH 4 kg -1 VS. The digestion of alternate bedding materials like flax and woody materials leads to specific methane values beneath 0.100 Nm³ CH kg -1 VS. Based on these results these materials should be avoided for anaerobic digestion. The straw based horse manure produced 0.191 ± 0.02 Nm³ CH 4 kg -1 VS in the batch assay. The storage of the manure resulted in significant lower methane yields. Hence, the anaerobic digestion of the straw based horse manure is an efficient conversion pathway and can help to avoid the utilization of acreage for energy production instead of the production of food. Keywords: biogas, methane yield, horse manure, anaerobic digestion Normal 0 21 false false false DE X-NONE X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Normale Tabelle"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;}

Prioritization of watersheds using multi-criteria evaluation through fuzzy analytical hierarchy process

Abstract: Conservation of available natural resources through demarcation of potential zones at micro level are primary necessitate for sustainable development, particularly in the fragile semi-arid tropics. Delineation of potential zones for implementation of conservation measures above the entire watershed at similar occurrence is inaccessible as well as uneconomical; consequently it is a prerequisite to apply viable technique for prioritization of sub-watersheds (SWDs). Keeping this in view, the present research attempted to study various morphological characteristics and to implement Geographical Information System (GIS) and Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) through Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP) techniques for identification of critical sub-watersheds situated in transaction zone between mountainous and water scarcity region of Western Part of India. The morphometric characterization was obtained through the measurement of three distinct linear, areal and relief aspects over the eight sub-watersheds. The morphometric characterization showed imperative role in distinguishing the topographical and hydrological behavior of the watershed. Each hydrological unit was ranked with respect to the value and weightages obtained by deriving the relationships between the morphometric parameters obtained through classification of the SWDs by associating the robustness of fuzzy logic and the Analytical Hierarchy Processes (AHP). Based on FAHP approach, sub-watersheds were evaluated as vulnerability assessment zones and alienated into five prioritization levels: very less, less, medium, high and very high classes. The evaluated results illustrate d that 60.85% of sub-watersheds (five sub-watersheds) were in the medium to high susceptible zones, which depict ed potential areas for necessity of establishment of conservation interventions for the sustainable watershed management planning. The FAHP based technique is a viable approach in illustrating the dilemma particularly over data hungry and complex conventional soil and water risk assessment methods and will be useful to various stakeholders (rural extension community, agriculturists and water resources managers) for better decision making with an obliging rule based system for implementing various assessment measures . Keywords: f uzzy a nalytical h ierarchy p rocess, g eographic i nformation s ystem, m ultiple c riteria d ecision m aking, w atershed prioritization

Estimation of plant nitrogen content using digital image processing

Abstract: A manually operated four wheel test trolley was designed and developed for acquiring outdoor color images of plant under controlled illumination to predict crop nitrogen content in field. This set up consists of a camera to capture the plant image, four lights to control illumination and a laptop for processing the signal. The developed unit was evaluated rigorously for paddy crop for four observations at fifteen days interval after transplantation. The results were compared with the chlorophyll content of the crop measured by SPAD meter and the chemical analysis of plant leaf. The processing of the color plant image was done in MATLAB 7.0 program. Various features such as R, G, B, normalized ‘r’ and normalized ‘g’ were analyzed for both the processes. Regression models were developed and evaluated between various image feature and the plant nitrogen content and observed that, the minimum accuracy was found to be 65% with an average accuracy of 75% (Standard Deviation + 1.9), actual and predicted values of nitrogen percent were linearly correlated with R 2 value (0.948), this showed that the plant nitrogen content can be successfully estimated by its color image feature. Keywords: p recision agriculture , digital image processing , site specific nitrogen application

Assessment of spray distribution with water-sensitive paper

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to highlight the limitations of water-sensitive paper in characterizing spray droplet distribution and deposition in field application. Spatial distributions of spray droplets discharged from an airblast sprayer were sampled on pairs of absorbent paper (AP) and water-sensitive paper (WSP) targets at several distances from the sprayer. Spray solutions, containing a fluorescent tracer, were discharged from two nozzle sizes to achieve low and high volume rates commonly used in citrus applications. Spray deposits on AP targets were measured by fluorometry and spray coverage areas on WSP cards were assessed by three independent image analysis systems. Generally, there were good correlations ( R 2 = 0.9085 to 0.9748) among the three imaging systems in measuring WSP percent area coverage. Lower volume rate (smaller droplets) provided more useful WSP targets than higher volume rate (larger droplets). Overall, there were somewhat weak correlations between WSP area coverage and AP spray deposition measurements. Volume median diameter and number of droplet stains on WSP cards, obtained by only two imaging systems, showed noticeable differences between the measurements of the two systems. Keywords: WSP, image analysis, spray volume rate, spray coverage, spray droplet size

An introduction to patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth. ) - A medicinal and aromatic plant: It's importance to mankind

Abstract: Patchouli ( Pogostemon cablin Benth.) is a plant from Lamiaceae family , well known for its medicinal and aromatic properties. Patchouli is grown for its essential oil. Patchouli essential oil is mainly obtained by steam distillation of the shade dried leaves. It is widely appreciated for its characteristic pleasant and long lasting woody, earthy, camphoraceous odour. It is especially notable as the essential oil extracted is internationally important and valuable, principally for the aromatherapy, perfumery, cosmetics, incense stick production and food flavouring industries. This review attempt ed to give an overview of the relationship between aromatherapy and essential oils, importance of patchouli, harvesting pattern of patchouli, basics behind drying and steam distillation of patchouli crop, as well as trends existing in the various markets for essential oil application and its importance to mankind. Keywords: p atchouli, a romatherapy, d rying, s team distillation, e ssential oil, a pplications

Vibration analysis of a small diesel engine using diesel-biodiesel fuel blends

Abstract: Biodiesel as an environmentally friendly fuel has the potential to provide comparable engine performance results. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel produced from vegetable and seed oils, animal fats or waste edible oils. Sound and vibration caused by the combustion process in the engine might have direct effects on users. One of the important characteristics of diesel fuels is high noise and vibration. The present study was carried out to examine the vibration of different diesel-biodiesel fuel blends in power tiller engine. The main goal was to present fuels with the minimum vibration. So, the time domain signals were analyzed in five levels of engine speed, three axes and six fuel blends on the engine. The signal processing and statistical approach were applied for data analysis. The results showed that in all engine speeds, the dominant frequency is matched to the piston stroke frequency of the engine, as well as the frequency of vibration with the increase of engine speed. The experiments indicated that the magnitude of vibration in the power tiller engine depends on the axis of measurement, engine speed and the fuel blends. Vibration acceleration is significantly affected by engine speed and the increase in forward speed due to the increase in vibration acceleration rms. The results of the experiments revealed that vibration acceleration is significantly affected by the axis of measurement. The magnitude of vibration acceleration in vertical axis was more than that in the other two axes and magnitude of vibration acceleration in the longitudinal axis was more than that in the lateral axis. Fuel blends had significant effect on the vibration. It demonstrated that B100, B5 and B20 have the lowest vibration. On the contrary, B15 and B10 have the highest vibration. Keywords: vibration analysis, power tiller, time domain, frequency domain, diesel-biodiesel fuel blends

Towards the implementation of the Green Building concept in agricultural buildings: a literature review

Abstract: The “Green Building” is an interdisciplinary theme, where the green building concept includes a multitude of elements, components and procedures which diverge to several subtopics that intertwined to form the green building concept. Generally, the green building is considered to be an environmental component, as the green building materials are manufactured from local eco-sources, i.e. environmentally friendly materials, which are then used to make an eco-construction subject to an eco-design that provides a healthy habitat built on the cultural and architectural heritage in construction while ensuring conservation of natural resources. This ensures disassembling the building components and materials, after a determined building lifetime, to environmentally friendly materials that can be either re-used or recycled. During their lifecycle, the green buildings minimize the use of resources (energy and water); reduce the harmful impact on the ecology, and provide better indoor environment. Green buildings afford a high level of environmental, economic, and engineering performance. These include energy efficiency and conservation, improved indoor air quality, resource and material efficiency, and occupant's health and productivity. This study focuses on defining green buildings and elaborating their interaction with the environment, energy, and indoor air quality and ventilation. Furthermore, the present study investigates the green building materials (e.g. biocement, eco-cement and green concrete), green designs, green roofs, and green technologies. Additionally, the present study highlights the green buildings rating systems, the economics of green buildings, and the challenges that face the implementation. Eventually, the interdependency between the green buildings and agriculture has been discussed. Keywords: green building , agricultural buildings , biocement, eco-cement, green concrete, green roofs, low-energy building, zero-carbon building , eco-construction

Towards the implementation of the Green Building concept in agricultural buildings

Abstract: The “Green Building” is an interdisciplinary theme, where the green building concept includes a multitude of elements, components and procedures which diverge to several subtopics that intertwined to form the green building concept. Generally, the green building is considered to be an environmental component, as the green building materials are manufactured from local eco-sources, i.e. environmentally friendly materials, which are then used to make an eco-construction subject to an eco-design that provides a healthy habitat built on the cultural and architectural heritage in construction while ensuring conservation of natural resources. This ensures disassembling the building components and materials, after a determined building lifetime, to environmentally friendly materials that can be either re-used or recycled. During their lifecycle, the green buildings minimize the use of resources (energy and water); reduce the harmful impact on the ecology, and provide better indoor environment. Green buildings afford a high level of environmental, economic, and engineering performance. These include energy efficiency and conservation, improved indoor air quality, resource and material efficiency, and occupant's health and productivity. This study focuses on defining green buildings and elaborating their interaction with the environment, energy, and indoor air quality and ventilation. Furthermore, the present study investigates the green building materials (e.g. biocement, eco-cement and green concrete), green designs, green roofs, and green technologies. Additionally, the present study highlights the green buildings rating systems, the economics of green buildings, and the challenges that face the implementation. Eventually, the interdependency between the green buildings and agriculture has been discussed. Keywords: green building , agricultural buildings , biocement, eco-cement, green concrete, green roofs, low-energy building, zero-carbon building , eco-construction

Development of a low cost machine vision system for sorting of tomatoes

Abstract: Sorting of tomatoes has been an issue faced by producers as well as sellers due to the sheer volumes handled and the delicate nature of the fruit. This paper describes the development of a low cost machine vision system using webcams and image processing algorithms for defect detection and sorting of tomatoes. In the case of agricultural products, good efforts and appropriate techniques are necessary to distinguish between defected and good ones when using machine vision for sorting. Tomatoes having two major defects namely Blossom End Rot (BER) and Cracks could be separated from good tomatoes with calyx. The sorting decision was based on three features extracted by the image processing algorithms. The color features were used for detecting the BER from good tomatoes and shape factor combined with the number of green objects was used for differentiating the calyxes from crack defects. Two methods, rule based and neural network approaches, were developed for decision based sorting. A control system was developed with a belt conveyor to transport the tomatoes and a cylinder pushrod coupled to a solenoid was used to push the defective tomatoes after determining their defect by the algorithms. The color image threshold method with shape factor were found efficient for differentiating good and defective tomatoes. The overall accuracy of defect detection attained by the rule based approach and the neural network method were 84 and 87.5% respectively. The inspection speed of 180 tomatoes min -1 was achieved by the algorithms and the prototype developed. Comparison of the results obtained by the rule based and neural network approaches are also presented in this paper.

Production of cellulosic ethanol from wood sawdust

Abstract: Energy from fossil fuels has played a very important role in our lives, but such an important role has been clouded out due to the environment hazards caused from fossil emissions. This has led to a new dimension in energy utilization known as renewable energy fuels. To fully support this type of energy from biological mass, adequate biomass source must be harnessed. This work thus was carried out to utilize a local available biomass waste as an alternative source of ethanol which is currently used for spark ignition engines as a renewable energy fuel. It also determined the yield of ethanol from the sawdust used. The sawdust sample was collected from the Nsukka Sawmill (Timbershade). Materials used included 18 m (78% concentration) of sulphuric acid, 6 m of sodium hydroxide for hydrolysis, and fermentation process. The hydrolysis involves the extraction of fermentable sugar from a cellulosic biomass. The sawdust of sulfuric acid mixture was allowed to sit for 48 hours, then the distilled water was used to dilute in order to bring its pH between 5.0 - 6.0. 10 kg of sawdust gave 500 cm 3 of ethanol using Beer-Lambert plot of ethanol water mixture. The success of the extraction of ethanol shows there

Some physical properties of almond nut and kernel and modeling dimensional properties

Abstract: T hree main dimensions of nut and kernel of almonds were measured. Then some dimensional properties of nut and kernel were calculated. Effect of the moisture content on bulk density, true density, porosity and coefficient of friction of kernels and nuts were studied. Angle of repose on iron, plywood and galvanized sheet were measured. Also in order to examine the correlation between two dimensions of kernels and nuts and correlation between one dimension of nuts and similar dimension of kernels, linear and quadratic regression were used. Length, width and thickness distributions of nuts and kernels were modeled using normal, log normal, Weibull and Generalized Extreme Value distributions. For modeling other dimensional properties , only Generalized Extreme Value was used. The estimated parameters of the PDF for three main dimensions of nuts and kernels indicated that G.E.V was best fit. With increasing moisture content of the kernels from 4.20 % to 29.64% (w.b.), true density and porosity were increased from 939.629 to 1 , 077.428 kg m -3 and 37.704 % to 57.088%, respectively; and bulk density was decreased from 585.350 kg m -3 to 462.343 kg m -3 . When the moisture content of the nuts increased from 4.03 % to 28.13% (w.b.), true density and porosity were increased from 1 , 025.124 kg m -3 to 1 , 149.700 kg m -3 and 38.562 % to 56.55%, respectively , and bulk density was decreased from 629.81 kg m -3 to 499.532 kg m -3 . Values of coefficient of friction on all surfaces were increased with increasing moisture content. Keywords: g ravimetric properties, r egression, l og likelihood, n ormal distribution, Weibull distribution, g eneralized e xtreme v alue distribution, a lmond nut

Grader: A review of different methods of grading for fruits and vegetables

Abstract: Grading of agricultural produce especially the fruits and vegetables has become a perquisite of trading across borders. In India mostly fruit growers grade the fruit manually. Manual grading was carried out by trained operators who considered a number of grading factors and fruit were separated according to their physical quality. Manually grading was costly and grading operation was affected due to shortage of labor in peak seasons. Human operations may be inconsistent, less efficient and time consuming. New trends in marketing as specified by World Trade Organization (WTO) demand high quality graded products. Farmers are looking forward to having an appropriate agricultural produce-grading machine in order to alleviate the labor shortage, save time and improve graded product’s quality. Grading of fruits is a very important operation as it fetches high price to the grower and improves packaging, handling and brings an overall improvement in marketing system. The fruits are generally graded on basis of size and graded fruits are more welcome in export market. Grading could reduce handling losses during transportation. Grading based on size consists of divergent roller type principle having inclination, expanding pitch type, inclined vibrating plate and counter rotating roller having inclination type graders. Weight grading based on density and specific gravity of agricultural commodities. The need to be responsive to market demand places a greater emphasis on quality assessment, resulting in the greater need for improved and more accurate grading and sorting practices. Size variation in vegetables like potatoes, onions provided a base for grading them in different categories. Every vegetable producing country had made their own standards of different grades keeping in view the market requirements. Keywords: grading, handling, packaging, color sensor, specific gravity, India

Development of an active evaporative cooling system for short-term storage of fruits and vegetable in a tropical climate

Abstract: An active evaporative cooler for short-term storage of fruits and vegetable has been developed to improve the shelf life of fruits and vegetables for small holder farmers in Southern Nigeria. The evaporative cooler uses palm fruit fiber as cooling pad material which is considered a waste in palm oil production in Nigeria and consists of three suction fan, automatic water control switch, water pump and evaporative cooling chambers. The performance of cooler was evaluated in terms of temperature drop, efficiency of the evaporative cooling and cooling capacity. The temperature drop ranged from 4 0 C to 13 0 C while the relative humidity of the ambient air was increased to 96.8%. The cooler could drop the temperature close to wet bulb depression of ambient air and provided up to 98% cooling efficiency with a maximum cooling capacity of 2 , 529 W. At an ambient temperature of 37 0 C, the evaporative cooler provided the storage conditions of 23.2 temperature and 85.6% – 96.8% relative humidity, which can enhance the shelf life of wide range of fruit and vegetables of moderate respiration rates. The power consumption of the cooler was half that of a typical vapour compression refrigerator of the same volume. Keywords: cooling capacity, cooling efficiency, evaporative cooling, temperature drop cerun:yes'> A throughput capacity of 66.06 kg h -1 was obtained at moisture content of 12.5% wet basis and 405 r min -1 while throughput capacity of treadle thresher was 55.51 kg h -1 at moisture content of 17% wet basis and 610 r min -1 . Keywords: cowpea, mechanical damage, moisture content, threshing efficiency, variety

Citrus black spot detection using hyperspectral image analysis

Abstract: A recently discovered fungal disease called citrus black spot, is threatening the Florida citrus industry. The fungal disease, which causes cosmetic lesions on the rind of the fruit and can cause a tree to drop its fruit prematurely, could possibly lead to a ban on sales of fresh Florida citrus in other citrus-producing states. The objective of this research is to develop a multispectral imaging algorithm to detect citrus black spots based on hyperspectral image data. Hyperspectral images of citrus fruits (Valencias) were collected in the wavelength range of 480 nm to 950 nm. Five surface conditions were examined, citrus black spot, greasy spot, melanose, wind scar, and normal one . The first part of the image analysis determined the optimal wavelengths using correlation analysis based on the wavelength ratio ( l 1 / l 2 ) and wavelength difference ( l 1 - l 2 ). Four wavelengths were identified, 493 nm, 629 nm, 713 nm, and 781 nm. In the second part, pattern recognition approaches namely linear discriminant classifier and artificial neural networks were developed using the four selected wavelengths as the input. Both pattern recognition approaches had an overall accuracy of 92%. The detection accuracy was improved to 96% by using the NDVI band ratio method of 713 nm and 781 nm. The multispectral image algorithm developed in this study haspotential to be adopted by a real-time multispectral imaging system for citrus black spot detection. Keywords: a ctivation energy, e ffective diffusivity, f oam-mat drying, f oam characteristics, m odeling , Shrimp

An inexpensive open-source ultrasonic sensing system for monitoring liquid levels

Abstract: Liquid levels are measured in a variety of agricultural applications, and are often measured manually, which can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. Rapid advances in electronic technologies have made a variety of inexpensive sensing, monitoring, and control capabilities available. A monitoring system was developed and evaluated for automatic measurement of liquid levels, and demonstrated by monitoring water levels in evaporation pans used in evaporation studies and irrigation scheduling. The system is composed of an ultrasonic sensor, a microcontroller-based data logger, and a temperature sensor. The ultrasonic sensor measures the distance from the sensor to the liquid surface. Air temperature is measured by the temperature sensor, and is used to compensate for changes in the speed of sound due to air-temperature variations to improve accuracy of ultrasonic distance measurements. The datalogger is programmed to take measurements and to store data on a memory card which can be downloaded for processing and analysis. All components of the system were assembled in a PVC housing. The system was tested in the field, and resulted in water levels measured by the system corresponding very closely to those measured manually (R 2 > 0.98). This system is inexpensive, with total cost of US$85, and easy to build, install, and

Energy inputs – yield relationship and sensitivity analysis for tomato greenhouse production in Iran

Abstract: This paper studies the energy balance between the input and the output energies per unit area for greenhouse tomato production. For this purpose, the data on 30 tomato production greenhouses in Isfahan province, Iran were collected and analyzed. The results indicated that a total specific input energy of 116 , 768.4 MJ ha -1 was consumed for tomato production. Diesel fuel (with 40%) and chemical fertilizers and manure (with 30%) were amongst the highest input energies for tomato production. The energy productivity was estimated to be 1.16 kg MJ -1 . The ratio of output energy to input energy was approximately 0.92. 19% and 81% of total energy input was in renewable and non-renewable forms, respectively. The regression results revealed that the contribution of input energies on crop yield for human power , machinery, pesticides and electricity inputs was significant. The human power energy had the highest impact (1.45) among the other inputs in greenhouse tomato production. The marginal physical productivity of diesel fuel, seed and total chemical fertilizer with manure was negative. It can be because of applying the inputs more than required or improperly applying. The highest shares of expenses were found to be 34% and 21% for human power and total diesel fuel and machinery, respectively. Cost analysis revealed that total cost of production for 1 ha greenhouse tomato production was around US$ 34939 . Accordingly, the benefit-cost ratio was estimated as 2.74. Results of greenhouse gas emission indicated that tomato production is mostly depended on diesel fuel sources. Diesel fuel had the highest share (2 , 719.98 kg CO 2eq .ha -1 ) followed by electricity (729.6 kg CO 2eq .ha -1 ) and nitrogen fertilizer (409.5 kg CO 2eq .ha -1 ). Keywords: tomato, greenhouse, energy productivity, economic analysis, Cobb-Douglas function Normal 0 false false false EN-US X-NONE FA /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:7.1pt; mso-para-margin-bottom:0cm; mso-para-margin-left:22.4pt; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; text-indent:-22.4pt; line-height:150%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;}

Energy input–output analysis and mechanization status for cultivation of rice and maize crops in Sikkim

Abstract: Rice and maize are main cereal crops cultivated in Sikkim In this paper energy input-output and the level of agricultural mechanization for cultivation of rice and maize in Sikkim state of India has been presented The data were collected on area under rice and maize crops, sources of power and agricultural tools/implements used total production through village survey It has been observed that the traditional practices of cultivation of rice and maize crops consumed an average energy input of 3,338984 MJ ha -1 and 4,386435 MJ ha -1 respectively Data analysis showed that about 60% of the total input energy in the present cultivation practices comes from human and animal power sources The output-to-input energy ratio was observed to be 766 and 586 for rice and maize, respectively The observational estimate showed that average productivity of rice and maize crop in the region is only 9240 kg ha -1 and 4310 kg ha -1 , respectively, which is very low Mechanization and machine energy indices were found to stand at a value of 03618 and 03244, respectively for rice crop cultivation, and 02612 and 02111, respectively for maize crop cultivation The average farm power availability in the state has been estimated as 070 kW ha -1

Changes in physicochemical characteristics of germinated brown rice and brown rice during storage at various temperatures

Abstract: t he aim of this study was to investigate changes in physicochemical characteristics of brown rice (BR) and germinated brown rice (GBR) during storage at 4 o C (low temperature) and 37 o C (high temperature) for up to eight months. The higher storage temperature led to increase in b-value, hardness values and free fatty acid, but a decrease in whiteness index for both BR and GBR. Although the moisture contents of BR and GBR stored at 37 o C decreased, adequate moisture content was retained for BR stored at 4 o C for eight months. In contrast, the moisture content of GBR stored at the low temperature was found to increase. The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) contents in all rice samples decreased following storage at 4 o C and 37 o C for eight months. The low temperature helped maintain the water absorption and hardness of BR and GBR samples, whereas the higher storage temperature seemed to cause both parameters of the samples to rise. Compared to that of high temperature, low temperature led to a greater increase in free fatty acid with the aging of GBR . Based on the overall acceptability scores, the panelists preferred cooked GBR to cooked BR. Both cooked rice varieties nevertheless received lower scores in all sensory attributes after eight months of storage despite the fact that the cooked GBR received better scores in every sensory attributes. Storage at 37 o C prompted the panelists to reject the aged BR due to low overall acceptability scores of less than five after eight months of storage. The study results indicate that short storage time at low temperature maintains the physical and chemical characteristics of brown rice and germinated brown rice . Keywords : Germinated brown rice, Brown rice, GABA, Physicochemical properties

Fuel consumption of some tractor models for ploughing operations in the sandy-loam soil of Nigeria at various speeds and ploughing depths

Abstract: Tractors acquired in Oyo State-Nigeria are primarily utilized for ploughing operations which represents the most costly single item in the budget of an arable farmer. Tractor fuel consumption constitutes a significant parameter that affects tractors performances for ploughing operations. The effect of ploughing speed and depth on tractors fuel consumption was therefore examined in a bid to establish their optimum operating conditions. The soil characteristics of the study site were determined using laboratory tests. Ploughing operations, using ASABE standard D497.5 , were carried out on 100 × 500 m research farmland using Massey Ferguso n ( MF 435, 100 hp), Fia t ( F130D, 100 hp) and Stey r( CVT170, 100 hp) tractors that were purchased in 2009. Field experiments were conducted at 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5 km h -1 ploughing speeds for ploughing depths of 20, 25 and 30 cm. The soil type in the study site is predominantly sandy-loam. Mean fuel consumption for Fiat, MF and Steyr models were 23.35, 23.58 and 24.55 L ha -1 while average of 16.78, 22.02 and 32.67 L ha -1 of diesel were used to plough 20, 25 and 30 cm depths respectively. Fuel consu m ption values increases with ploughing dept significantly, there is 31% increase from 20 to 25 cm and 48% increase from 25 to 30 cm depths. Mean fuel consumption at 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5 km h -1 ploughing speeds were 20.0, 24.25 and 27.23 L ha -1 respectively. Fuel consumption increased by 4.25 L (21%) when speed is increased from 5.5 to 6.5 km h -1 and 2.98 L (12%) when speed increases from 6.5 to 7.5 km h -1 . Mean fuel consumptio n (23.35, 23.58, 24.55) L ha -1 for MF, Fiat and Steyr tractors respectively were significantly different at the various speeds and ploughing depths ( p r 2 ≤ 0.99). The most appropriate combination of ploughing operating parameters in terms of tractor fuel economy is achieved using Fiat tractors at 6.5 km h -1 ploughing speed and 25 cm ploughing depth. Tractors’ performance for ploughing operation depends significantly on ploughing speed, ploughing depth and tractor type. However, the depth of crop roots should determine the appropriate ploughing depth in order to minimize expenses on fuel. Keywords: t ractor performance, s oil types, p loughing depth, p loughing speed, f uel consumption

Foam-mat drying of shrimp: characterization and drying kinetics of foam

Abstract: 1024x768 Normal 0 false false false EN-CA X-NONE AR-SA st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} The effects of water: shrimp ratio and xanthan gum (XG) concentration on characteristics of shrimp foam were investigated. Foams were prepared from shrimp puree by adding several xanthan gum concentrations (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 % w/w), water: shrimp ratios (2:1, 3.5:1, 5:1 w/w) and whipped for five min utes . Incorporation of 0.2% w/w XG with 3.5:1 w/w water: shrimp ratio was selected because of having better characteristics of produced foams and then dried at 50, 60 and 70°C. Results showed that stability and density of foam increased with increasing xanthan gum concentration. However, increasing water : shrimp ratio caused to decrease in stability and density of foam. As the temperature increase d from 50 to 70°C, the drying time decreased to 55 min utes . Only the falling rate period could be observed during the drying process. The average values of effective diffusivities of dried samples at mentioned temperature range were estimated to be between 3.24–6.49×10 -9 m 2 s -1 . The Arrhenius equation with the activation energy value of 32.16 kJ mol -1 described the influence of temperature on the diffusion coefficient. Seven thin-layer drying models were fitted to the experimental data. Among all the drying models, the Midilli–Kucuk model was found to give better prediction than the others. Keywords: a ctivation energy, e ffective diffusivity, f oam-mat drying, f oam characteristics, m odeling , Shrimp

Engineering properties and bruise susceptibility of peach fruits (Prunus persica)

Abstract: In order to better design and modification of peach post harvesting systems such as sorting, conveying and packaging, selected engineering properties and bruise susceptibility of two Iranian peach varieties (Elberta and Spring time) were determined. Physical and mechanical properties such as dimensions, mass, volume, projected area, surface area, sphericity, static friction and rolling resistance coefficients on various surfaces, firmness and compressibility were measured. Also, effect of cultivar, drop height (50, 100 and 150 mm) and contact surface material (fruit, steel and rubber) on the bruise area and volume were investigated. Analysis of variance results indicated that cultivar had a significant effect ( p p p Keywords: peach, physical and mechanical properties, bruise area, bruise volume

Vibration analysis influence during crisis transport of the quality of fresh fruit on food security

Abstract: Mechanical damage of agriculture produce is a major problem in the harvest and post-harvest chain. This damage could cause huge economic loss. In addition, it could lead to serious food safety concerns. Several cases of foodborne illness have been traced to poor or unsanitary postharvest practices. Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157:H7, Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Cryptosporidium, Hepatitis, and Cyclospora are among the diseases and disease-causing organisms that have been associated with fresh fruits and vegetables. Measurements of mechanical characteristics of agricultural products under different static and dynamic loads should help in predicting the type and magnitude of mechanical injuries which will help in minimizing losses and improve the safety the produce. In the current study, we examined the parameters essential for fruit package processes. Fruits were exposed to random excitation( is excited by combination of single- sinusoidal signal and a broad band stochastic single and compared to pure stochastic excitation) by using robust techniques EFDD enhanced frequency domain to harmonic excitation. Six vibration modes were identified in the frequency range of 0-1.6 kHz by two techniques FDD & EFDD. The paper-wrap and foam-net cushioning materials interaction is also studied. Damage identification technique has been applied to determine the integrity of the structure. Nearly all the examined fruit showed deterioration due to vibro-pressure and friction stresses mainly consisting of translucent or darkened bruises and streaks. Results obtained from test without cushioning materials have been correlated with the package of paper-wrap cushioning materials and foam-net cushioning materials.

Mathematical modeling of drying characteristics of chilli in hot air oven and fluidized bed dryers

Abstract: The thin layer drying kinetics of chilli is experimentally investigated in hot air oven and fluidized bed dryers. Experiments were conducted at inlet air temperatures of 45 ℃ , 50 ℃ , 55 ℃ , 60 ℃ and 65 ℃ . The power consumption and quality parameters (color and capsaicin content) were measured in each experiment. Thirteen different thin layer mathematical drying models were compared by using their regression coefficient, chi square value and RMSE (root mean square error). The Midilli model was found to be the best mathematical model which could use to satisfactorily predict the moisture ratio of chilli at different drying air temperatures in each type of dryers used. Surface colour chromaticity parameter a* changed from 32.5 at 45 ℃ to 25.8 at 65 ℃ temperature in hot air dryer whereas it was changed from 29.3 at 45 ℃ to 23.8 at 65 ℃ . When temperature increases from 50 ℃ to 65 ℃ , there is a considerable reduction in the colour of chilli in both dryers. Capsaicin concentration was inversely related with the air temperature and there was a sharp reduction of capsaicin concentration when increasing the temperature from 60 ℃ to 65 ℃ . The energy consumption was higher in fluidized bed dryer than the hot air oven dryer when moisture content of chilli reduced from 280% to 9% (d.b) during drying process. The retention time of the fluidized bed dryer in all operating temperatures was nearly three times less that of hot-air oven dryer due to higher air flow characteristics. Lowest power consumption occurred at 65 ℃ temperature setting in both dryers while the fluidized bed dryer consumed nearly 75% more power. Keywords: m athematical modeling, drying kinetics, capsaicin, fluidized bed, regression

Effect of different tillage and residue management practices on growth and yield of corn cultivation in Thailand

Abstract: The tillage and residue management during soil bed preparation need to be in appropriate manner for sustainable farming practice. The effects of tillage and residue management methods on corn cropping were studied on loamy soil in Bangrakum district, Phitsanulok Province, Thailand. The effects of five commonly used tillage methods : subsoiler tillage (ST), three methods of conventional tillage (CT1, CT2 and CT3), no-tillage (NT), as main factors and two corn residue management methods; burned (R1) and unburned (R2), as sub-factors were studied in a randomized strip plot configuration. Tillage treatment showed significant effect on physical and chemical soil properties, plant growth and development, grain yield, total aboveground biomass and most importantly the weed emergence and density, while the two crop residue management methods did not show significant differences. The improvement in plant development and grain production was found to be due to the increased tilled depth and thus the ST was the most effective tillage method for improving soil physical properties and to increase corn production; corn growth, biomass and grain yield. ST showed high er total grain yield than CT1, CT2, CT3 and NT approximately 35 % , 101 % , 88 % , 216% , respectively. It could be concluded that ST as the best and sustainable method of soil management for corn cropping while having typical weeding and fertilization practices. Keywords: Tillage, no-tillage, randomized, emergence, compaction, subsoiler, biomass

Enhancing the evaporative cooling performance of fan-pad system using alternative pad materials and water film over the greenhouse roof

Abstract: Greenhouse technology is a viable option for sustainable crop production in the regions of adverse climatic conditions. During hot seasons the heat input to a greenhouse causes the internal temperature to exceed its optimal value. The present study was devoted to construct an evaporative cooling system to reduce heat stress inside a greenhouse. Two identical small-scale greenhouses were designed, constructed, and installed on an open roof of a domestic house. The two greenhouses were cooled using fan-pad system. In addition, a thin water film was applied on the roof of one greenhouse to study the effect of roof water film and fan-pad (combined system) on the cooling performance. The two cooling systems were compared under the same condition. Three new evaporative cooling pads represented by Cryperus Alopecuroides Rottb (Samar), Cyerus Alternifolius (Purdy) and Cyperus Rotundus l (Nut-grass or Se'd) were adapted and evaluated. Three pad face air velocities ranged between 0.45 and 1.01 m s-1 and two thicknesses of 10 and 15 cm were used in the investigation of the cooling performance criteria. Results showed that the proposed cooling pads in the suggested evaporative cooling systems were able to maintain acceptable microclimatic conditions for greenhouse models. Se'd pad material proved more efficiency in temperature reduction. It was revealed that the temperature inside the greenhouse operated under the combination of roof water flow and fan-pad system was less than that for fan-pad greenhouse by about 1.1 to 5.44° C in the morning and afternoon respectively. The air relative humidity was increased due to humid effect provided by cooling system which protects crops from excessive transpiration and crop damage. The daily average cooling efficiencies of 88.4, 83.1 and 79.6% were obtained for Se'd, Purdy and Samar, respectively during testing days inside the combined system at 15 cm pad thickness and 0.45 m s-1 pad face air velocity. The Se'd pad material showed the highest efficiency as compared to other pad materials and could be used as an alternative pad material. Keywords: greenhouse, evaporative cooling, fan-pad system, pad material, roof water flow

Subsurface drainage effects on soil penetration resistance and water table depth on a clay soil in the Red River of the North Valley, USA

Abstract: Since 1993, the Red River of the North Valley in North Dakota (ND) and Minnesota (MN), in the USA has experienced increased annual rainfall which has caused localized seasonal soil waterlogging and inhibited crop yield potential in the unique, high water table clay soils of the region. Subsurface (tile) drainage has been increasingly considered by farmers to help reduce excess water in the crop root zone. Producers desire to manage the water table for optimizing yield and trafficability of the field. The objective of this research was to evaluate differences in soil penetration resistance and water table depth between subsurface (drained) and non-subsurface drained treatments (undrained), using water control structures, in fallow, and cropped soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend. Thell.) cultivars on a Fargo-Ryan silty clay soil near Fargo, ND, USA in 2009 and 2010. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in a split-plot arrangement with four replicates. The whole plot treatments were drained and undrained (control structures opened and closed, respectively). Soil penetrometer readings and water table depth were measured weekly. Yields of each crop were not different comparing drained and undrained treatments in 2009 and 2010. The depth averaged drained penetration resistance was 1,211 kPa compared with 1,097 kPa for undrained treatment, averaged across 2009 and 2010. The depth-averaged drained penetration resistance values for fallow, soybean, and wheat were 1,077, 1,137, and 1,420 kPa, respectively. The undrained values for fallow, soybean and wheat were 1,001, 1,021, and 1,267 kPa, respectively, all significantly lower than the drained treatments, indicating that the drained soil is capable of a higher load carrying capacity compared to the undrained soil. The average depth to the water table was greater on drained soil compared to the undrained soil both early and late in the growing season. Forty two percent of the variation in the penetration resistance can be explained by the level of the water table below the surface. Water control structures can be used to manage the water table level and soil penetrations resistance. The ability for land managers to enter drained fields with farm equipment earlier will likely extend the length of the growing season and potentially increase crop yields in this region. Keywords: subsurface water management, penetration resistance, controlled drainage, water table depth, trafficability, USA

Comparison of visible-near infrared and mid-infrared spectroscopy for classification of Huanglongbing and Citrus Canker infected leaves

Abstract: In this study, visible-near infrared spectroscopy and mid-infrared spectroscopy were compared to evaluate their applicability in classifying citrus leaves infected with canker and Huanglongbing (HLB) from healthy citrus leaves. The visible-near infrared spectra in the range 350-2,500 nm and mid-infrared spectra in the range of 5.15-10.72 µm were collected from healthy and diseased (canker, HLB) leaves. Following the spectral data collection, the data were preprocessed and classification was performed using two classifiers, quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) and k-nearest neighbor (kNN). The classifiers (QDA, kNN) resulted in an average overall and individual class classification accuracy of about 90% or more. Mid-infrared spectroscopy provided high classification accuracy especially in identifying HLB-infected leaves; while, visible-near infrared spectroscopy was better suited for canker detection. Both methods have their own merits such as visible-near infrared spectroscopy offers non-invasive disease detection; while mid-infrared spectroscopy represents the chemical profile of the leaf, which may allow potential detection in asymptomatic stages.

Effect of moisture content on thermal properties of cowpea flours

Abstract: The effects of moisture content on thermal properties of cowpea flour were investigated on a range of 3.81% to 28.31% wet basis at 5% intervals, totaling six moisture levels, using a KD2 Pro Thermal Properties Analyzer. The considered thermal properties were thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and specific heat. As the moisture content increased from 3.81% to 28.31 %, the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and specific heat increased from 0.109 to 0.213 W m -1 K -1 , 0.099 to 0.136 mm 2 s -1 , and 1.092 to 1.573 MJ m -3 K -1 , respectively. The data are necessary for design of equipment for handling, transportation, processing, and storage of cowpea flour. Keywords: cowpea, Vigna unguiculata , flour, thermal properties, KD2 Pro, moisture content

Mathematical modeling of thin layer solar drying of tomato slices

Abstract: T hin layer drying of tomato slices was evaluated using a laboratory solar dryer. The experimental moisture ratios of the samples were fitted to nine drying models. The drying experiments were carried out on tomato slices with thicknesses of 3, 5 and 7 mm at the air velocities of 0.5 and 1 m s -1 . The effect of drying thickness and air velocity on the drying time was evaluated. The mathematical models were tested with the drying behavior of tomato slices in the laboratory solar dryer. The coefficients of the models were determined by multiple regression method in three spaces (solar dryer, shadow, open sun drying) to find out the most suitable moisture ratio model. The Page model was found as the best model based on statistical parameters of R 2 , RMSE and χ 2 . The Page model is applicable to predict moisture content of tomato slices during solar drying of tomato slices. Keywords: p edal operated thresher, t hresher, t hresher drive linkage, p hysiological workload