Showing papers in "British Journal of Educational Psychology in 1998"

The regulation of constructive learning processes

Abstract: Background. Classical instructional design theories and constructivist theoTies disagree on the issue of how high-quality learning can be realised. Research on student learning bas identified a large number of learning components, but the problems of overlap among conceptualisations and the direction of interrelations among constructs have received little attention. Aims. The main aims of this study were: increasing integration of existing models of student learning; gaining understanding of the regulation of constructive learning processes; and investigating the degree to which these phenomena generalise across contexts. Samples. A total of 717 students from an open university (OU) and 795 students froma regular university (RU), fiom various academic disciplines, participated in the studies. The mean age of the OU students was 36.2 years and of the RU students 22.5 years. Methods. Based on phenomenographic studies, a diagnostic instrument was constructed that covered four leaming components: cognitive processing, metacognitive regulation, mentalleaming modeis, and leaming orientations. It was administered to all students trom the samples. Factor analyses on the data were conducted to achieve a more integrated model of student leaming. Regression analyses were performed to study the directionality in the regulation of learning processes. Results. Eour leaming dimensions were consistently found: an undirected, reproduction-directed, meaning-directed and application-directed style. These styles consisted of typical combinations of leaming components. Moreover, students' use of constructive processing strategies was explained much better by self-regulation of leaming than by extemal regulation. These findings were almost identical at both educational institutions, indicating a high degree of generalisability. Conclusions. The integrated model of student leaming developed in this study caD reduce the overlap among leaming component conceptualisations considerably. The results stress the importance of process-oriented teaching models foT improving the quality of student leaming.

The influence of age and education on epistemological beliefs

Abstract: Background. Individuals' beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, or epistemological beliefs, have been linked to their comprehension, meta-comprehension, persistence, and interpretation of information (e.g., Kitchener & King, 1981; Ryan, 1984; Songer & Linn, 1991). Little is known about the development of epistemological beliefs. Aims. This research examines the contributions of age and education to adults' epistemological beliefs. Sample. A total of 418 adults from all walks of life (e.g., homemakers, waitresses, teachers, farmers, carpenters, executives, and lawyers) participated in this study. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure that one-third of the sample had only a high school education, another third had some college undergraduate experience, and the other third had some graduate school experience. Method. Adults completed an epistemological questionnaire that assesses beliefs about the structure and stability of knowledge, and the speed and control of learning. Results. To ensure that the epistemological questionnaire was suitable for this sample, a factor analysis was carried out. Factor scores that were generated replicated a factor structure that had been found in earlier studies (Dunkle, Schraw & Bendixen, 1993; Schommer, 1990). Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that education predicted beliefs about the structure and stability of knowledge. Age predicted beliefs about the ability to learn. Conclusions. This evidence suggests that both age and education affect individuals' epistemological beliefs in unique ways. This may have implications for older adults who return to school eager to learn but with misunderstandings about the nature of knowledge, and younger adults who attend school with doubts about the malleability of the ability to learn.

Scottish and Australian teacher stress and strain : a comparative study

Abstract: Background. There is a widespread belief that teacher stress is a serious problem with obvious implications for teachers' physical and psychological health status as well as performance. There is much published research about teacher stress, although not about cultural or national group comparisons. Aim. This study examines the occupational stress, strain and personal coping resources of a comparative group of Scottish and Australian vocational teachers. Sample. Three hundred and thirty two Scottish and Australian vocational and further education teachers. Method. A standardised test, the Occupational Stress Inventory, was used to gather the data. Results and Conclusions. Overall it was found that stress and strain similarities between the two national groups far outweighed the differences. For instance, there were no between-group differences in strain levels, which were found to be at ‘average’ levels for both groups. Nevertheless, for both groups of teachers, role overload appeared to be a strong source of occupational stress.

Learning styles: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study in higher education

Abstract: Background. In his dissertation, Jan Vermunt (1992) proposed four different learning styles: a meaning directed, a reproduction directed, an application directed and an undirected style. Aims. In a cross-sectional and longitudinal design the development of these learning styles during students' stay at the university is studied, as well as the relation of these styles with academic success. A systematic relation between year of study and learning style is expected, namely that the application and meaning directed learning style scores would be higher in the later years and the undirected and reproduction learning style scores would be the highest in the early years. Results. In the cross-sectional study it was not found that the application and meaning directed learning style scores were higher in the later years, nor that the undirected and reproduction learning style scores were the highest in the early years. In the longitudinal study the means of the meaning directed and application directed learning style scores indeed increased over the years, while the means of the reproduction and undirected learning style scores decreased. For the score on the meaning directed learning style, this change was significant, though a marginal effect size was found. Conclusion. It might not be concluded there is a systematic relation between year of study and learning style. No evidence is found for the implicit hierarchy that the meaning directed and application directed learning are better than the reproduction learning style. The undirected learning style, however, correlates negatively with academic success.

The dimensionality of approaches to learning: An investigation with confirmatory factor analysis on the structure of the SPQ and LPQ

Abstract: Background. A recent review of research into students' approaches to learning suggested there was good evidence of meaning and reproducing orientations to study. In the former the student seeks the underlying meaning in study material, while in the latter attention is directed towards reproducing the text itself. The most widely used inventories of learning approaches also include a factor for an achieving approach and one contains another factor too. Aims. The study aimed to examine the discrepancy between the dimensionality inherent in the design of instruments measuring approaches to learning and that indicated by subsequent factor analyses. Methods. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the dimensionality of approaches to learning. Seven models were fitted to parallel data sets from the Study and Learning Process Questionnaires. Samples. The sample used for SPQ analysis was 4843 university students from Hong Kong universities. The LPQ data was drawn from a representative selection of 20 secondary schools in Hong Kong. The total number of usable questionnaires for the LPQ was 3254. Results. For both sets of questionnaire data, the best fit was achieved by a model with two factors: meaning and reproducing orientation. The achieving motive and strategy subscales were significant indicators of both factors. Conclusions. The results suggest that approaches to learning are described better by a two-factor model than the three- or four-factor ones on which the inventories are based.

A comparative study of approaches to studying in Hong Kong and the United Kingdom

Abstract: Background. The study was conducted in the context of a number of comparative studies into student approaches to studying, particularly in an Asian context, and used the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (RASI). Aims. (i) Explore the cross cultural validity of the RASI; (ii) compare the approaches to studying of Hong Kong and UK students; (iii) examine the predictive validity of the RASI; (iv) investigate the relationships between age, gender and approach. Samples. The samples consisted of undergraduates at two institutions in Hong Kong (N = 183) and the UK (N = 225) following business studies and related degree programmes. Method. The RASI was administered in the course of a study skills workshop in which co-operation was voluntary. Learning performance data from summative and formative assessments were used to examine the predictive validity of the RASI. Results. Principal components analysis was generally successful in reconstructing the three RASI scales; however the ‘relying on memorising’ subscale loaded ambiguously. The RASI failed to predict any aspect of learning performance for the Hong Kong sample, whilst for the UK sample there were some low correlations. An interaction of age and gender in their effect upon deep and strategic approaches was observed for the Hong Kong sample. Conclusions. (i) The conception of ‘Asian learners as rote learners' is not supported; (ii) approaches to studying should not be seen in isolation from contextual factors, particularly the demands of assessment regimes; (iii) conceptualisations of memorisation require further theoretical and empirical elaboration.

Affective variables, learning approaches and academic achievement: A causal modelling investigation with Hong Kong tertiary students

Abstract: Background. Academic learning outcomes are believed to be influenced by a complex system that involves the interaction of student personality characteristics and learning processes. Yet to date there have been few studies, particularly in a non-western culture, which have examined the interrelationships between these variables and their causal effects on achievement outcomes. Aims. This study aims to investigate the interrelationships of affective variables, learning approaches and academic achievement. It was hypothesised that academic causal attributions and academic self-concept affected the learning approaches the students adopted and subsequently influenced achievement outcomes. Sample. The participants were 162 male and female Hong Kong Chinese university students who enrolled in first year full-time Nursing, Radiography, and Language and Communication courses. Their average age was 20 years. Methods. Measures of academic causal attributions, academic self-concept, learning approaches and academic achievement were obtained. Structural equation modelling (SEM) techniques were used to test the relationships among the variables. Results. It was shown that as predicted, both academic causal attributions and academic self-concept influenced academic achievement indirectly via students' learning approaches. Locus of control was significantly and negatively related to the surface approach to studying while academic self-concept had a positive significant influence on the deep approach. Both the surface and the deep approaches to studying showed significant direct effects on academic achievement. Conclusions. The findings supported the theoretical notion that personality variables influence students' learning processes and subsequently their academic achievement. The findings also lend support to attributional retraining, self-concept enhancement interventions and development of self-regulated learning strategies to improve different aspects of student learning.

A developmental study of the relation between combined learning and performance goals and students' self‐regulated learning

Abstract: Background. Current goal theory models assume that learning goals are adaptive in academic contexts and that performance goals lead to less positive patterns of motivation and self-regulation. These models also implicitly assume that the adaptive nature of these goals is the same at all academic levels. Aims. The objectives of this study were to examine how combined learning and performance goals are related to self-regulation and academic performance, and whether there is a developmental trend in these relations. Sample. A total of 1072 junior (N = 408, mean age = 11.9), middle (N = 323, mean age = 13.7), and senior (N = 341, mean age = 15.7) high school students were examined. Method. They were administered a questionnaire assessing their learning and performance goals and reported their self-regulatory strategies while studying. Results. Analyses showed that whatever their performance goals, having high learning goals promoted younger students' self-regulation. They also showed that, contrary to the findings for younger students, performance goals were related to self-regulation and academic performance at higher school levels. Furthermore, high performance goals were found to alleviate the negative effects of low learning goals for older students. Conclusions. These findings suggest that the adaptive nature of goals could change across development. This could be due to contextual factors such as the increasing importance of obtaining good grades to access higher academic levels. Future research should address this issue.

Teachers as targets of bullying by their pupils: a study to investigate incidence

Abstract: Background. The relationship between teachers and pupils as a possible medium for bullying behaviour has not figured significantly in research into this area, despite possible consequences with regard to levels of aggressive behaviour generally within schools. Aims. It was argued that bullying might not be restricted to peer-abuse, but that it may manifest across the peer divide, which for the purposes of this study has been referred to as ‘cross-peer abuse’. The study specifically examined the ‘cross-peer abuse’ of teachers by their pupils, and primarily aimed to establish incidence. Secondary considerations were also mooted, however, concerning gender differences, and length of service. Samples. This study acquired data regarding the incidence of bullying against teachers by pupils (N=101) from the teaching staff of seven urban high schools. Methods. Questionnaires were distributed to teaching staff. The questionnaire was explicit in its definition of bullying, in order to pre-empt subjective perceptions of the behaviour. Results. The results indicate a probability that an incidence of cross-peer abuse — definable as bullying against teachers by their pupils — exists, both from teachers' self reported data, and that reported regarding their colleagues. Higher incidence for females was found not to be the case. Predictions that less experienced teachers may be more at risk were supported. Conclusions. The results are sufficiently convincing to suggest that the problem is more pervasive than anticipated, and would warrant more substantive research. If, as has been implied by some research, bullying follows a cyclic pattern, then the role of the teacher within that cycle may be regarded as significant. As an additional stress factor for teachers, there may be significant implications for future legal redress, if bully-abuse by pupils could be established as an intrinsic part of such medical difficulties.

Coping with peer arguments in school-age children with bully/victim problems

Abstract: Background and aims. This paper reports data on the relationship between bully/victim problems and the coping strategies used when confronted with a peer argument. Specifically, we examine the extent to which bully/victim problems are related to five types of coping strategies (Social Support Seeking, Problem-Solving, Distancing, Internalising and Externalising). Sample. The sample consists of 329 children (168 boys, 161 girls), drawn from the fourth- through sixth-grade classrooms of three Flemish elementary schools. Results and conclusion. In the correlational analyses, both victimisation and social neglect are shown to be related to internalising coping, whereas bullying is associated with externalising coping and with a lack of problem-solving. Moreover, a positive relationship between victimisation and social support seeking was found. Separate analyses for boys and girls and a consecutive categorical approach provide a more precise picture of the link between social coping strategies and bully/victim problems.

Self-reports of mathematics self-concept and educational outcomes: the roles of ego-dimensions and self-consciousness.

Abstract: Background. There is a need for research to (a) explore more fully the academic outcomes that follow from under-/over-rating of self-concept and (b) identify factors that predict the nature of self-reports of self-concept as well as under- and over-rating of this self-concept. Aims. The study examines the link between students' self-appraisals of both mathematics self-concept and under-/over-rating of this self-concept and educational outcomes in mathematics such as achievement and motivation (future plans for mathematics). Ego-dimensions (ego-orientation and competence-valuation) and public self-consciousness were examined as two factors that might contribute to predicting these self-appraisals. Sample. Findings are drawn from a sample of 382 male and female high school students ranging in age from 14 to 16 years. Methods. Students responded to a questionnaire (at Time 1) that assessed self-concept, motivation orientation, competence-valuation, self-consciousness, and mathematics motivation. Teachers rated each student using a brief mathematics self-concept scale. Results. Higher mathematics self-concept and over-rating of this self-concept were predictive of higher levels of mathematics motivation and later mathematics achievement (Time 2). Findings also indicate that ego-orientation and competence-valuation are positively associated with mathematics self-concept and over-rating, whilst public self-consciousness negatively predicts mathematics self-concept and is also associated with a tendency to under-rate oneself in this domain.

Is self-explanation while solving problems helpful? The case of analogical problem-solving

Abstract: Background. Explanations people give themselves (or what are called self-explanations) while learning have been shown to be positively associated with various learning measures. However, the effect of self-explanation on analogical problem-solving has not been investigated. Aim. The aim of this study is to investigate the relation between self-explanation and analogical problem-solving. Sample. Twenty-four university students from the social science faculty. All the students were in their early twenties, 75 per cent of them being females. Method. The students were asked to solve three analytical reasoning problems (one learning problem and two test problems). The students were prompted either to self-explain or to think-aloud. During the problem-solving, verbal protocols were tape-recorded. Results. Students prompted to self-explain performed better in the test phase. The analysis of verbal protocols from good and poor solvers allowed us to identify four categories of self-explanation. Three categories were positively associated with analogical problem-solving. However, one category pertaining to the ‘surface structure’ of the problems studied had detrimental effects on further problem-solving. Conclusions. In contrast to previous findings, only certain kinds of self-explanations improve analogical problem-solving. We suggest, therefore, that the role of certain self-explanation is to support better the representation of solution schemes.

An Evaluation of Structured Abstracts in Journals Published by the British Psychological Society

Abstract: Background. In 1997 four journals published by the British Psychological Society - the British Journal of Clinical Psychology, the British Journal of Educational Psychology, the British Journal of Health Psychology, and Legal and Criminological Psychology - began publishing structured abstracts. Aims. The aim of the studies reported here was to assess the effectiveness of these structured abstracts by comparing them with original versions written in a traditional, unstructured, format. Method. The authors of articles accepted for publication in the four journals were asked to supply copies of their original traditional abstracts (written when the paper was submitted) together with copies of their structured abstracts (when the paper was revised). 48 such requests were made, and 30 pairs of abstracts were obtained. These abstracts were then compared on a number of measures. Results. Analysis showed that the structured abstracts were significantly more readable, significantly longer, and significantly more informative than the traditional ones. Judges assessed the contents of the structured abstracts more quickly and with significantly less difficulty than they did the traditional ones. Almost every respondent expressed positive attitudes to structured abstracts. Conclusions. The structured abstracts fared significantly better than the traditional ones on every measure used in this enquiry. We recommend, therefore, that the editors of other journals in the social sciences consider the adoption of structured abstracts.

The prevalence and correlates of specific learning difficulties in a representative sample of children with hemiplegia

Abstract: Background. Children with hemiplegia have cerebral palsy affecting one side of the body due to damage to the opposite side of the brain. An investigation of the association between hemiplegia and specific learning difficulties (SpLD) provides a unique window on body-mind links and left brain/right brain differences. Aims. The present study investigated the prevalence and correlates of SpLDs in children with hemiplegia. Sample. A representative sample of 149 London children with hemiplegia aged between 6 and 10 included 59 children whose cognitive abilities and predicted academic ability were within the average range. Methods. SpLDs were defined by ability-achievement discrepancy analysis. Differences between children with and without SpLDs were explored with a between-groups design. Results. Children with hemiplegia had significantly more SpLDs than expected, with 36 per cent of these children having at least one SpLD. Children with and without SpLDs were similar in intelligence and demographic background, but the children with SpLDs had significantly more severe neurological impairments and a significantly higher rate of emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBDs) than comparison children. Conclusions. Three typical case studies are described and recommendations made for the early identification and remediation of SpLDs in children with hemiplegia.

Secondary school teachers' perception of pupils' undesirable behaviours.

Abstract: Background. Previous studies provide inconclusive evidence with regard to the influence that teacher, pupil and school characteristics have on teachers' attitudes towards problem behaviours. Aims. To investigate the seriousness of several behaviours as perceived by secondary school teachers, and the extent to which these perceptions are influenced by a number of characteristics. Sample. A sample of 605 randomly selected teachers from 16 state secondary schools participated in the study. Methods. A questionnaire survey method was employed. Results. Drug abuse, cruelty/bullying and destroying were perceived as the most serious behaviours whereas inquisitiveness and whispering were rated as the least serious. Significant grade level differences were observed in all but two of the 49 behaviours, these being masturbation and obscene notes. While smoking and heterosexual activity were perceived significantly more serious in Form 1–2 than in Form 4–5 pupils, the converse was true for all the remaining forms of behaviour. Irrespective of grade level, a number of significant pupil sex and teacher sex differences were observed. Whereas cheating, lying, masturbation and heterosexual activity were perceived to be significantly more serious in girls than in boys, the converse is true for dreaminess, disorderliness, silliness, quarrelsomeness, and restlessness. While female teachers perceived masturbation and obscene notes significantly more serious than male teachers the opposite is true for disorderliness. School selectivity and teaching experience were important moderators of the perceived seriousness of problem behaviours. Conclusions. The study provides additional evidence of the importance of certain teacher, pupil and school characteristics as moderators of teachers' perception of the seriousness of behaviour.

A multilevel meta‐analysis of gender differences in learning orientations

Abstract: Background Reviewing gender differences in learning processes does not result in a clear and coherent picture of the magnitude and direction of gender differences (Severiens & ten Dam, 1994) The results not only differ on several dimensions but at times they are actually contradictory Aims The aim of the present study is to obtain a more coherent picture of gender differences in learning orientations Samples To provide this picture, a meta-analysis was performed on 22 studies which investigate gender differences in learning orientations The studies used Entwistle's Approaches to Studying Inventory, and were conducted in a variety of higher education settings Methods The results of these studies were analysed in a multilevel approach with two levels: the respondents are nested within studies Results Results show significant mean gender differences on the Reproduction Orientation (women score higher), and on the Non-academic Orientation (men score higher) Furthermore, gender differences appeared on 11 of 16 scales (eg, relating ideas, operational learning, fear of failure, negative attitude to studying, extrinsic motivation) The effect scores of 10 of 16 scales of the ASI are heterogeneous The observed variation in gender differences across studies could not be explained by the small number of available study characteristics Conclusions More research is needed which explores factors in the educational context ‘responsible’ for the magnitude and direction of gender differences in learning orientations

The relation between accuracy of self‐perception and cognitive development

Abstract: Background. It is now widely recognised that student's self-perceptions of competence have an effect on their behaviours and learning. Previous studies have shown that children only gradually develop the ability to evaluate accurately their own competence. One possible explanation for this is that younger children have not reached a level of cognitive development required to perform such evaluations. Aims. The objective of these two studies was to examine the hypothesis that children at higher levels of cognitive development should be more accurate in their self-appraisal of competence than children of the same age at lower levels of cognitive development. Study 1 Sample. The sample included 173 elementary school children, with almost equal gender representation. Children were first examined in fourth grade (mean age = 10.0, SD = .77) and for the next two years. Method. Each child responded to questionnaires of self-perceptions about reading and to a standardised test of reading. Year-end grades in reading were used as a measure of performance. Results. The results show that there was no significant difference between high and low children in grade 6, but that the correlation between self-perceptions and performance was significantly higher among high ability children than among low ability children both in grades 4 and 5. Study 2 Sample. The sample included 153 elementary school children in grade 3 (mean age = 9.1, SD = .73) and 185 in grade 5 (mean age = 11.2, SD = .75), with almost equal gender representation. Method. Each child responded to questionnaires of self-perceptions about mathematics and to a standardised IQ test. Year-end grades in mathematics were used as a measure of performance. Results. The correlation between self-perception and performance was significantly higher among high IQ children than among low IQ children in grade 3. However, in grade 5, high and low IQ children were similarly accurate in their self-perceptions. Conclusions. These results suggest that the development of accurate self-perceptions is not strictly a matter of age or school level but is also related to cognitive development.

The effectiveness of parents in promoting the development of road crossing skills in young children

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Young children show poor judgment when asked to select a safe place to cross the road, frequently considering dangerous sites to be safe. Correspondingly, child pedestrian accidents are over-represented at such locations. Increasing the child's ability to recognise such dangers is a central challenge for road safety education. AIMS: Practical training methods have proved effective in improving such judgments but are labour-intensive, time-consuming and therefore difficult to implement on a realistic scale. The study examined the possibility that volunteers from the local community might be capable of using such methods to promote children's pedestrian competence. SAMPLE: Sixty children from the Primary 1 (Reception) classes of three Glasgow schools took part. Volunteers were ordinary parents from the same areas. None had 'formal' experience of working with children other than through being parents. METHOD: Volunteers received experience of training children at courses organised in each school. Children learned in small groups, receiving two sessions of roadside training followed by four on a table-top model. Pre- and post-tests allowed the effectiveness of training to be assessed. RESULTS: Significant improvements relative to controls were found in all children following training. Improvements proved robust and no deterioration was observed two months after the programme ended. Comparison with a previous study in which training was undertaken by highly qualified staff showed that the volunteers were as effective as 'expert' trainers. CONCLUSIONS: Parent volunteers can significantly increase the pedestrian competence of children as young as five years. They constitute a most valuable 'resource' in road safety education. The opportunities afforded by involving the local community in educational interventions should be further explored. Language: en

A Rasch measurement model analysis of the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory.

Abstract: Background. The Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (Entwistle & Tait, 1994) comprises 38 self-report items designed to measure student approaches to learning in a higher education context. The items have been conceptualised and designed from five learning orientations, corresponding to five subscales of the Inventory: ‘a deep approach’, ‘a surface approach’, ‘a strategic approach’, ‘a lack of direction’ and ‘academic self-confidence’. Aims. The study aims to create an interval level scale for the Inventory and analyse its psychometric properties using a modern measurement model, the Extended Logistic Model of Rasch (Andrich, 1988a, 1988b; Rasch, 1980), and investigate the conceptual design of the Inventory. Sample. The sample was 346 students (170 females, 176 males, 212 less than 23 years and 134 older than 23), studying in first year Faculty of Business, at a university in Perth, Western Australia. Method. A scale was created for the Inventory and analysed for reliability, fit to the model, meaning and validity. The Inventory was analysed separately for each of four subgroups (females, males, younger and older students) to test the invariance of the scale. The five subscales were analysed separately to test the conceptual design and meaning of the Inventory. Results. The Inventory has satisfactory psychometric properties, when items 20 and 33 are deleted. Easier and harder items need to be added to better target the student measures. Its conceptual design from the five learning orientations is confirmed. Only 15 items have satisfactory invariance across the four subgroups. The psychometric properties of three subscales (deep approach, surface approach and strategic approach) are only moderately satisfactory and the item separabilities of the other two (lack of direction and academic self-confidence) are unsatisfactory. Conclusions. The Extended Logistic Model of Rasch was found to be useful in creating an interval level scale for the Inventory, and for analysing its psychometric properties and conceptual design. It is suggested that the Inventory can be improved conceptually by adding more items relating to attitudes, intentions and behaviour and by adding harder and easier items to target the student measures better.

Educational implications of field dependence‐independence: in answer to Bagley and Mallick

Abstract: Background. This article replies to some of the comments made by Bagley & Mallick (1998) about our investigation (Tinajero & Paramo, 1997). Aims. To clarify some of Bagley and Mallick's comments about our investigation, and to defend alternative interpretations about some aspects which refer to field dependent-independent cognitive style (FDI) mentioned by the authors, such as the overlapping between measures of cognitive style and ability, and the implications the latter has in an educational context. Methods. A revision of theoretical arguments and empirical evidence about the questions which are dealt with. Conclusion. The generalisation of the results of our study about the relationship between FDI and academic achievement seems to be feasible in the light of data from previous studies carried out with samples of very different origin. Investigation into FDI takes place alongside theoretical debates about aspects such as its adaptive value or its overlapping with intelligence. These debates remain open.

Comparison of the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour

Abstract: Background. Ajzen & Fishbein's (1977) theory of reasoned action and, later Ajzen's planned behaviour theory (Ajzen, 1988; Ajzen & Madden, 1986) have received great attention in the literature (e.g., Giles & Cairns, 1995). A number of researchers have attempted to explain several aspects of human behaviour (e.g., Bandura, 1997). A review of literature between 1990 and 1997 using the Psychlit and ERIC databases which pertained to the application of the theories of reasoned action and/or planned behaviour for the explanation of student study behaviour for an upcoming examination revealed one study (Clarry & Burns, 1991) in which little support for the use of the theory of planned behaviour was provided. Aims. The purpose of the present study was to examine the appropriateness of the theories of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977) and planned behaviour (Ajzen & Madden, 1986) to explain student study behaviour during final examinations as pertaining to achieving a high Grade Point Average (GPA). Sample. This comprised 136 freshmen Greek students from an American undergraduate institution located in Greece. Method. A structural equation modelling analysis using EQS 4.02 (Bentler, 1992) was used to evaluate the construct validity of the theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour. In this modelling, latent variables were a function of measured variables and direct and indirect relationships were postulated in a path-analysis framework in order to explain both theories. Since the theory of reasoned action was nested within the theory of planned behaviour, a direct comparison between them was feasible. Results. Ajzen & Fishbein's (1977) theoretical framework (reasoned action) was well supported, providing a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) of .947. The only modification between the original (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977) and the final structural model was a direct path between motivation to comply and study behaviour. This structural model provided significant improvement over the original model providing a CFI of .976 and a non-significant value. Further, inclusion of the perceived control constructs produced a model with acceptable fit also (CFI = .934). Conclusion. It is concluded that both theories describe well the study behaviour of students although inclusion of perceived behavioural control was not fully supported by the data.

Students' evaluations of teaching effectiveness: a structural modelling approach

Abstract: Background. While studies of students' evaluations of teaching effectiveness (SETEs) have a long history in the United States, few studies have been carried out with United Kingdom students. Aims. This paper examines the utility of using a questionnaire approach to assess teaching effectiveness with United Kingdom students. Structural modelling was used to examine perceived relationships between teacher, course and student characteristics. Sample. A total of 1708 full-time undergraduate students undertaking degrees in health and social science courses at the University of Ulster participated in the study. Method. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and structural modelling techniques (LISREL 8) were employed to investigate participants' responses to the Teaching Effectiveness Survey, a measure of students' evaluations of teaching effectiveness. Results. Perceived Teaching Quality was found to be related to course characteristics. Teacher, course and student characteristics together explained 88 per cent of the variance in students' Overall Evaluations with Teaching Quality, course and student characteristics explaining 42 per cent, 18 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. Conclusion. The results suggest that questionnaire items derived from American studies can be used effectively with United Kingdom students. Students' perceptions of overall course effectiveness were found to be dependent on student and course characteristics as well as teacher inputs.

Willcoxson and Prosser's factor analyses on Kolb's (1985) LSI data: reflections and re-analyses

Abstract: Background. Willcoxson & Prosser's (1996) factor analyses provide partial evidence for the existence of Kolb's (1985) two bipolar dimensions while their correlation analysis provides complete evidence. Aims. Based on this discrepancy, coupled with past research evidence, the present writer aims to clarify some problems in the factor analyses conducted by Willcoxson and Prosser by re-analysing the correlation matrix. Methods. The present re-analyses investigated both the two- and three-factor solutions. Results. The two-factor solution was found to be preferable. Conclusions. In all, the factor analysis, appropriately conducted, provides strong and complete evidence for the validity of Kolb's two bipolar dimensions, not just partial evidence as found out by Willcoxson and Prosser.

Pupils' explanations of seasonal changes: age differences and the influence of teaching

Abstract: Background. Pupils have consistent everyday astronomical explanations, some of which, e.g., distance theory, are very resistant to change. The reasons why everyday explanations are not replaced by scientific ones have been connected with teaching methods used in school. Aims. The developmental differences in explaining seasonal changes and the reasons why school teaching fails in changing distance theory are studied. Samples. The 112 schoolchildren participating in the study were: 32 pupils from each of grade 3 (age 9–10), grade 5 (age 11–12) and grade 7 (age 13–14) (half of them from a state school, others from Waldorf school) and 16 pupils from grade 9 (age 15–16). Half of the pupils were boys. The participants were divided into groups of four same-sex and same-grade pupils (i.e., into 28 groups). Methods. Guided peer discussions in foursomes are used. Explanations of pupils of different ages and from two schools with different teaching methods are compared. Results. The sources of references on which pupils based their explanations were divided into five categories: everyday, distance-theory, incomplete, exact rules and authoritative. It is shown that younger pupils refer more frequently to everyday perceptible data and older ones more to knowledge taught in school but using distance theory does not change with age. Differences between schools were determined. Conclusions. Such an everyday explanation as distance theory is very vital as it is drawn from several everyday experiences with heat sources. It is used to explain seasonal changes as far as scientific explanations learnt in school have not been well understood or have been forgotten.

Paired reading: effects of a parent involvement programme in a disadvantaged community in South Africa

Abstract: Background. The study was conducted in an educationally disadvantaged South African community where the effectiveness of a paired reading parent involvement programme, which stressed interaction around reading as a means of mediating meaning, was evaluated. Aims. The research aimed to evaluate whether reading accuracy, comprehension and attitude were promoted through involving parents and other family members as mediators in a process of paired reading. Further, it aimed to elucidate interactive ecosystemic effects across family, school and community levels. Samples. Two complete grade four classes (29 and 32 children respectively) served as comparison groups (average age: 9 years 7 months). Methods. To test the significance of the improvement in reading accuracy and comprehension (Neale Analysis of Reading Ability: Neale, 1966) and attitude (Elementary Reading Attitude Survey: McKenna & Kear, 1990) for the experimental group relative to the control, one-tailed t-tests for independent samples on the respective pre-test/post-test difference scores were applied. Results. Statistically significant improvements in reading accuracy and comprehension, as well as reading attitude and involvement, were demonstrated. A broad ecosystemic analysis suggested that positive relationships between children and significant others in the family were nurtured and other children in the family were benefiting. Interactions between family and school, and school and the local community library, were also enhanced. Conclusions. The study emphasises the importance of developing mediation insights and skills in parent involvement programmes, and the place of ecosystemic analysis in understanding the social dynamics involved in such programmes.

Pupil-class determinants of aggressive and victim behaviour in pupils.

Abstract: Background. Aggressive behaviour in pupils is expressed in, e.g., bullying, sexual harassment, and violence. Different kinds of variables could be relevant in explaining a pupil's aggressive or victim behaviour. Aims. To develop a multilevel theoretical and empirical explanation for different kinds of aggressive and victim behaviour displayed by pupils in a classroom and school environment. Samples. A national survey was carried out to identify different kinds of aggressive and victim behaviour displayed by pupils and to assess other variables related to pupils, classes, and schools. A total of 1998 pupils from 100 third and fourth year classes attending 71 different secondary schools took part in the research. Methods. Data were analysed by a series of secondary multilevel analyses using the MLA-program. Results. Being a boy, being more extravert, being more disagreeable, coming across fewer teachers with positive teaching behaviour, and attending a lower type of secondary school, help explain why someone is a perpetrator as such. Being a boy, being more disagreeable, being more emotionally unstable, being open to new ideas, and seeing more teachers as being strict, function as explanatory pupil variables for victim behaviour. Other pupil level variables determine more specific aggressive and victim behaviour aspects. Various other class level and school level variables are relevant, too. Conclusions. Personal and environmental pupil variables are more important than class variables but class variables are in turn more important than school variables in explaining a pupil's aggressive and victim behaviour.

Learning to read at home and at school

Abstract: Aims. Social class differences in reading achievement are well documented in the literature. The present study looked for social class differences in home literacy activities, such as reading to children, hearing children read, teaching children about the alphabet, and fostering phonological awareness through nursery rhymes and games of ‘I Spy’, which might underlie these. Sample. Sixty-one parents of children in Reception and Years 1 and 2 in a North London primary school were interviewed. Two social class groups were identified, by mother's occupation. Methods. A structured questionnaire was used in the parental interviews: thus data collected relied on self-reports. Children's reading ages and alphabet knowledge were measured, with the latter used as an indicator of reliability of parental self-report. Results. Mean reading age was significantly higher in middle class children, who knew significantly more letter-sound correspondences. No social class difference was found in parents' reports of time spent hearing children read, but middle class parents reported spending more time reading to children: however, this did not relate to reading age. No social class difference was found in estimates of children's nursery rhyme knowledge, but middle class parents were more likely to report frequently playing ‘I Spy’. Both social class groups were equally likely to report teaching children letter names and sounds, but middle class parents reported using a wider variety and more materials than working class parents. When letter-sound knowledge was used as a predictor of reading achievement, social class was no longer a significant determiner. Conclusions. Very few differences were found by social class, and those found did not relate clearly to reading achievement.

Teachers as significant others: gender differences in secondary school pupils' perceptions.

Abstract: Background. Numerous studies refer to the impact of parents and friends as significant others for adolescents. Given the unique nature of the relationships between teachers and their pupils and their intensive everyday interactions, the present study focuses on a not yet covered topic, namely the meanings that adolescents attach to the significance of their teachers. Aims. This study was aimed at examining gender differences in secondary school pupils' perceptions regarding positive and negative aspects of the significance of their teachers, and to investigate the possible different domains in which teachers as compared with parents and friends might be significant for the adolescents. Samples. A total of 297 Israeli secondary school pupils (approximately 57 per cent girls and 43 per cent boys) studying in 12 tenth grade classes (age modal 16) participated in this study. Methods. A questionnaire dealing with pupils' perceptions of significant teachers was administered. Pupils were asked to indicate the extent to which significant teachers are characterised by various descriptors (it was defined for the pupils that a significant teacher is one whom the pupil perceives as having an important influence on her/him). In addition pupils were asked to answer two open-ended questions regarding the domains in which teachers, as compared to their parents and their friends, might be significant for them. Results. Findings showed that the most frequently mentioned characteristics of significant teachers were: teachers who ‘take pupils seriously’, ‘have confidence in them’, ‘make it easier for them to understand things' and ‘push them to do well’. It was also found that girls, more than boys, characterise significant teachers as facilitating learning and relationships; and that boys, more than girls, perceive significant teachers as obstructing their personal development. Conclusions. Our findings allude to the high potential that teachers may have for impact on their pupils, beyond the domain of learning alone, and provide support for the existence of differential perceptions of significant teachers among boys and girls. These gender differences were explained in terms of the different character of teachers' interaction with the two sexes, and the fact that in the Israeli educational system more than 80 per cent of the teaching staff are women.

Third graders' acquisition of knowledge of banking: restructuring or accretion?

Abstract: Background. Some scholars maintain that similar processes intervene in children’s cognitive development and in the history of science. According to Carey (1985), radical conceptual restructurings taking place during ontogenesis are the counterpart of scientific revolutions. Other authors object that individual cognitive development is only of an incremental type and shows no resemblance to scientific revolutions. Aims. The main aim was to investigate whether a radical restructuring in children’s conceptions of banking can be produced in a short time through explicit teaching. Sample. A total of 58 third grade middle-class children participated.

Gender differences in motivational style: a comparison of measures and curriculum area.

Abstract: Background. Gender has long been implicated in school-based performance with gender differences varying across curriculum domains. Motivational differences have often been cited as a possible cause. However, evidence for the pattern of motivational difference between the genders is unclear. Aims. This study compares the motivational responses of girls and boys in the curriculum areas of mathematics and English. Two different measures of motivation are employed. Samples. The sample consists of all pupils from years 7, 9 and 11 in two secondary schools in Northern England. A total of 435 yr 7, 389 yr 9 and 357 yr 11 students was available. Methods. Students completed two assessments of motivation, one based on self-report measures of goal strength and the other on performance over four tasks. Some school performance data were also available. Results. The two motivation measures produce different patterns of results. The task-based measure shows no gender based differences while the other indicates a pattern of differences broadly suggestive of an advantage for girls. Conclusions. Future exploration of gender effects in motivation needs to give careful consideration to the type of motivation under consideration. Univariate models are unlikely to be adequate.