Showing papers in "Educational Psychology Review in 2004"

Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?.

Abstract: Problem-based approaches to learning have a long history of advocating experience-based education. Psychological research and theory suggests that by having students learn through the experience of solving problems, they can learn both content and thinking strategies. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method in which students learn through facilitated problem solving. In PBL, student learning centers on a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer. Students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem. They engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed. The teacher acts to facilitate the learning process rather than to provide knowledge. The goals of PBL include helping students develop 1) flexible knowledge, 2) effective problem-solving skills, 3) SDL skills, 4) effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation. This article discusses the nature of learning in PBL and examines the empirical evidence supporting it. There is considerable research on the first 3 goals of PBL but little on the last 2. Moreover, minimal research has been conducted outside medical and gifted education. Understanding how these goals are achieved with less skilled learners is an important part of a research agenda for PBL. The evidence suggests that PBL is an instructional approach that offers the potential to help students develop flexible understanding and lifelong learning skills.

A Conceptual Framework for Assessing Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning in College Students

Abstract: A conceptual framework for assessing student motivation and self-regulated learning in the college classroom is presented. The framework is based on a self-regulatory (SRL) perspective on student motivation and learning in contrast to a student approaches to learning (SAL) perspective. The differences between SRL and SAL approaches are discussed, as are the implications of the SRL conceptual framework for developing instruments to assess college student motivation and learning. The conceptual framework may be useful in guiding future research on college student motivation and learning.

Patterns in Student Learning: Relationships Between Learning Strategies, Conceptions of Learning, and Learning Orientations

Abstract: This paper reviews the research conducted in the last decade on patterns in student learning, mostly in higher education. More specifically, the review focuses on a series of studies that have in common (a) the use of the Inventory of Learning Styles (ILS), an instrument aimed at measuring several components of student learning, namely, cognitive processing strategies, metacognitive regulation strategies, conceptions of learning, and learning orientations; and/or (b) an integrative learning theory focussing on the interplay between self-regulation and external regulation of learning processes as a theoretical framework. Aspects a and b are closely connected, because the development of the instrument was based on the theory. The review covers the following themes: The theoretical framework and conceptualization of student learning; a description of the instrument; the internal structure of learning strategies, conceptions, and orientations in different educational contexts; developments in learning patterns during the school career; consistency and variability in students' use of learning strategies; dissonance in students' regulation of learning processes; relations between learning patterns and personal and contextual factors; relations between learning patterns and learning outcomes; and process-oriented instruction.

The Conceptual Bases of Study Strategy Inventories.

Abstract: This article describes the historical origins and development of a series of well-known study strategy inventories and seeks to identify their conceptual bases. The theories and evidence influencing the development of 6 contrasting instruments are considered before examining empirical evidence of similarities and differences between the measurement instruments. This analysis is tackled in three stages, looking first at inventories developed in the 1970s and 1980s that focused mainly on motivation, study methods, and learning processes. The more recent work that brought in mental models, metacognition, and self-regulation is then introduced, leading to a concluding section that discusses the conceptual bases of the whole set of inventories. The trends found in this research area are described and used to explore the current confusion of overlapping terms describing apparently similar aspects of learning and studying in higher education.

Development and Use of the Approaches to Teaching Inventory

Abstract: This paper describes how research into approaches to university teaching, from a relational perspective, has been used to develop an inventory to measure the key aspects of the variation in approaches to teaching. The Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) is one of several that derive from the research perspective applied by Marton and colleagues in Europe (Marton, F., Hounsell, D., and Entwistle, N. (eds.) (1997). The Experience of Learning, 2nd edn., Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh) to student learning. A feature of these inventories is that they measure the response of a group to a particular context, rather than more general characteristics of individuals in that group. Studies using these inventories have consistently shown relations between students' approaches to learning and the quality of their learning outcome. The question of interest to many university teachers is whether there are relations between the way teachers approach their teaching and ways their students approach their learning. This question was answered in a study published in 1999 that used the ATI to show that teacher-focused approaches to teaching were associated with students' reproducing orientations. Subsequent research revealed that in subjects where teachers adopted more student-focused approaches to teaching, their students adopted a deeper approach to learning. Some recent research using the inventory is reviewed along with an analysis of the validity of the ATI. The current version of the inventory is reproduced in this paper.

A Model of Future-Oriented Motivation and Self-Regulation

Abstract: This article presents a theoretically grounded model of motivation and self-regulation that places personally valued future goals at its core. We attempt to integrate two lines of theorizing and research that have been relatively independent of one another: the social–cognitive perspective on self-regulation (e.g., Bandura, A., 1986) and theories of more future-oriented self-regulation (e.g., Markus, H., and Nurius, P., Am. Psychol. 41: 954–969, 1986; 1986; Nutin, J., Motivation, Planning, and Action: A Relational Theory of Behavior Dynamics, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1984; Raynor, J. O., Motivation and Achievement, Winston, & Sons, New York, Chap. 7, pp. 121–154, 1974). We argue that personally valued future goals influence proximal self-regulation through their impact in the development of proximal subgoals leading to future goal attainment. The development of a system of proximal subgoals increases the likelihood that proximal tasks are perceived as instrumental to attaining future goals. Proximal tasks that are perceived as instrumental to reaching personally valued future goals have greater overall incentive value and meaning than proximal tasks lacking this instrumental relationship, and their impact on task engagement is correspondingly greater. Research supporting these claims is reviewed and the implications of this model of future-oriented self-regulation for research and intervention are discussed.

Placing motivation and future time perspective theory in a temporal perspective

Abstract: An overview of the conceptual development of future time perspective theory [Nuttin, J. R. (1984). Motivation, Planning and Action: A Relational Theory of Behavior, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ; Nuttin, J., and Lens, W. (1985). Future Time Perspective and Motivation: Theory and Research Method, Leuven University Press and Erlbaum, Leuven, Belgium and Hillsdale, NJ] is provided. It is demonstrated that having a deep future time perspective and increasing the instrumentality of one's present behavior are associated with enhanced motivation, deep conceptual learning, better performance, and more intensive persistence. Moreover, recent research indicates that it is important to consider the degree of specificity of the provided future goal, the content of the given future goal, and the context in which the instrumentality of the present behavior is made clear. Practical implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Inherent Association Between Academic Delay of Gratification, Future Time Perspective, and Self-Regulated Learning

Abstract: We review the association between delay of gratification and future time perspective (FTP), which can be incorporated within the theoretical perspective of self-regulation of learning. We propose that delay of gratification in academic contexts, along with facilitative beliefs about the future, increase the likelihood of completing academic tasks. Discussed are (a) classic and current theoretical views of delay of gratification, (b) FTP and its association with delay of gratification, (c) evidence for the association between delay of gratification and FTP that enhances our understanding of academic success from a self-regulated learning approach, and (d) implications for instruction, and considerations of FTP for understanding achievement-related delay. Suggestions for further research are also discussed.

An Interview with Anita Woolfolk: The Educational Psychology of Teacher Efficacy

Abstract: AnitaWoolfolkHoyreceivedherBAinPsychologyin1969andherPhDin Educational Psychology both from the University of Texas at Austin. Sheworked briefly as a school psychologist in Texas, and then joined the facultyinDepartmentofEducationalPsychologyoftheGraduateSchoolofEduca-tion at Rutgers University in 1979. She remained there until 1993 and servedas Chair of the department from 1990 to 1993. Presently, she is a Professorin the College of Education at The Ohio State University. Her professionaloffices include Vice-President for Division K (Teaching and Teacher Edu-cation) of the American Educational Research Association and Presidentof Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological As-sociation. She has published research in the areas of student perceptions ofteachers, teachers’ beliefs, student motivation, and the application of educa-tional psychology to teaching. Her text,

Understanding the Process of Stereotype Threat: A Review of Mediational Variables and New Performance Goal Directions.

Abstract: Stereotype threat is a situational experience in which an individual feels vulnerable and pressured by the possibility of confirming or being judged by a stereotype. This threatening experience leads to performance decrements, even among highly skilled individuals. This article chronicles empirically tested mechanisms for how stereotype threat negatively impacts performance outcomes. A review of relevant published investigations illustrate that a number of intuitive mediators have been suggested and tested, often with discouraging results. Thus, one objective of this article is to provide researchers with a comprehensive and straightforward account of such tested mechanisms to assist with future works. Indeed, there is much room for research in this area considering that to date, as measured, no individual mediator has completely explained the stereotype threat–poor performance relationship. As such, the second objective of this article is to propose a multiple mediator approach drawing from achievement goal theory. The Stereotyped Task Engagement Process Model is presented. This model hypothesizes that performance goal adoption can offer insights into the potential multiple processes involved in stereotype-threat effects on performance.

Gender and Orientations Toward the Future: Links to Motivation

Abstract: Literature on future orientation and motivation was examined for gender differences. Research revealed gender differences from five theoretical orientations: achievement motivation, future time orientation, possible selves, expectancy-value, and social-cognitive. Some of those differences seemed best explained in terms of generational differences in gender role expectations. Gender differences were found in extension and density of future goals. Men had further extension but fewer goals than women. Evidence suggested that women's future expectations have become more similar to men's in the career realm, although women also have maintained their focus on interpersonal goals. An implication is that schools are a potentially powerful sociocultural context that can encourage students to envision futures that are not constrained by gender, race/ethnicity, or other stereotypes.

Aspects and Prospects of Measuring Studying and Learning in Higher Education

Abstract: The development of two dominant research traditions is described: students' approaches to learning (SAL) and information processing (IP). The development of the third tradition, self-regulated learning (SRL) is added. SAL is based on European research, whereas IP and SRL are more typical background ideas for North-American research. The most central conceptual frameworks behind these traditions are analyzed. These frameworks form the foundations for the most common inventories used in higher education to measure university students' learning and studying. A larger multilayered perspective is then outlined with three levels of context: general, course-specific, and situational. The other contributions to this Special issue are discussed in relation to this larger picture.

How Future Goals Enhance Motivation and Learning in Multicultural Classrooms

Abstract: This review examines the impact of future goals on motivation and learning in multicultural classrooms. Across cultures, schooling is a future-oriented investment. Studies of minority students' school achievement have advanced future goals as a crucial protective factor in the face of frequent school failure. At the same time, cultural discontinuities and limited opportunities in minority students' school careers may weaken the motivational force of the future. Our review of the seemingly contradictory evidence on the role of the future in minority students' school achievement calls for a more fine-grained motivational theory of the future. Specifically, converging findings support conceptual distinctions (a) between positive and negative perceptions of the instrumentality of school tasks for future goals, and (b) between internal and external regulation of classroom behaviour by future goals. Thus, positive instrumentality and internal regulation enhance intrinsic motivation and adaptive learning in multicultural classrooms. We conclude that the motivational force of future goals can be generalized to minority students and that it depends crucially on perceived instrumentality and internal regulation.

Methodological Issues in Questionnaire-Based Research on Student Learning in Higher Education

Abstract: Students' scores on questionnaires concerning their approaches to studying in higher education exhibit reasonable stability over time, moderate convergent validity with their scores on other questionnaires, and reasonable levels of discriminating power and criterion-related validity. Nevertheless, the internal consistency of the constituent scales and the construct validity of these instruments are variable, their content validity within contemporary higher education is open to question, and their wording may need to be revised when they are used with students from different social or cultural groups. Future research should investigate the possibility of response bias in such instruments and the validity of self-reports concerning study behavior.

A discussion of future time perspective

Abstract: A growing area of research in educational psychology is future time perspective and its relationship to desired educational outcomes. This article discusses and critiques five reviews of current research on future time perspective. Key questions addressed are when do individuals begin to articulate a future, how far into the future does this articulation extend, what is the nature of the future that individuals articulate for themselves, what is the relationship between future time perspective and other important psychological processes such as motivation and self-regulation, what is the relationship of future time perspective to gender, culture, and socioeconomic status, and how does future time perspective change over time as individuals grow and develop intellectually and socially? These key questions are fundamental to understanding the relevance and usefulness of future time perspective for interpreting and explaining variations in educational achievement across diverse group of learners internationally.

Effects of time perspective on student motivation: Introduction to a special issue

Abstract: This article introduces this special issue by establishing a conceptual foundation for thinking about how students' conceptions of time influence motivation and achievement. In particular, we describe how students' perceptions of the utility of what they are learning for their futures can positively affect motivation. Temporal perspective is tied to current models of motivation and learning such as intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. We present 2 purposes for organizing this issue: (a) initiating discussion and research about how conceptions of the future influence and are influenced by students' motivation and (b) bridging gaps in the field between American and international perspectives on learning and motivation. We conclude by introducing the 6 articles that comprise this special issue of Educational Psychology Review.

A New Perspective on Perspective Taking: A Multidimensional Approach to Conceptualizing an Aptitude

Abstract: Social perspective taking (SPT) is thought to be important in its own right and is often associated with other important skills, such as interpersonal conflict resolution. Previous research on SPT, however, has conceptualized it as a unidimensional construct leaving scholars with an insufficient understanding of this aptitude and how it relates to valued educational outcomes. To best understand SPT, a multidimensional approach should include assessments of personal characteristics (including the propensity and the ability to engage in SPT) and features of the situation (including features of the SPT task and the larger context). Using Richard Snow's conceptualization of aptitudes as a framework, this article illustrates the problems with treating SPT as a unidimensional construct, defines SPT as a complex aptitude, and provides a taxonomy of SPT to promote understanding and to guide future research in this area. The taxonomy organizes and reviews the existing literature that relates personal and situational characteristics to SPT aptitude. Where research has not yet been conducted, this article hypothesizes how these characteristics might relate to SPT aptitude.

An Interview with Deanna Kuhn

Abstract: Deanna Kuhn is Professor of Psychology and Education at Teachers Col lege, Columbia University. She holds a Ph.D. in developmental psychology from University of California, Berkeley, and was previously on the faculty at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. She is a fel low of the American Psychological Society and American Psychological Association, a board member of the Cognitive Development Society, and a member of numerous other organizations in psychology and education. She is former editor of Human Development and is coeditor of the Cognition, Perception, and Language volume of the Handbook of Child Psychology, fifth edition, and the forthcoming sixth edition. She has published widely in the fields of psychology and education in outlets ranging from Psychological Science and Psychological Review to Harvard Educational Review and Liberal Education.