Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1992"
TL;DR: A four-component instructional design model for the training of complex cognitive skills is presented, predicting that its application leads to “reflective expertise” and increased performance on transfer tasks.
Abstract: This article presents a four-component instructional design model for the training of complex cognitive skills. In the analysis phase, the skill is decomposed into a set of recurrent skills that remain consistent over problem situations and a set of nonrecurrent skills that require variable performance over situations. In the design phase, two components relate to the design of practice; they pertain to the conditions under which practice leads either to rule automation during the performance of recurrent skills or to schema acquisition during the performance of nonrecurrent skills. The other two components relate to the design of information presentation; they pertain to the presentation of information that supports the performance of either recurrent or nonrecurrent skills. The basic prediction of the model is that its application leads to “reflective expertise” and increased performance on transfer tasks. Applications of the model that support this prediction are briefly discussed for the training of fault management in process industry, computer programming, and statistical analysis.
238 citations
TL;DR: A rationale for, and description of, computer-mediated learning environments—multifaceted, integrated systems that promote learning through student-centered activities—are presented in this article.
Abstract: During the past three decades, interest in computer-based instruction (CBI) has grown dramatically. Enhanced power, increased availability of peripheral devices, and developments in hypermedia have created extraordinary capabilities. At the same time, there have been significant, though largely unexploited, advances in research, theory, and practice. Collectively, these advances offer the potential to redefine learner-computer interaction. A rationale for, and description of, computer-mediated learning environments—multifaceted, integrated systems that promote learning through student-centered activities—are presented in this article.
208 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested here that each has something to learn from the other, and that computer microworlds offer a platform for collaboration.
Abstract: The field of instructional technology is characterized by its products, such as instructional media, and its processes, such as instructional design. Over the past 50 years, the process of instructional technology has been shaped by advances in learning and instructional theory. Much of the development work to date has been associated with direct instruction or instruction based largely on the application of behavioral and neobehavioral principles. In contrast, constructivism, a faction within cognitive psychology associated with Piagetian learning theory, is characterized by discovery and experiential learning. Constructivists have sought to tap the computational power of modern microcomputers to create computer “microworlds,” such as those found in LOGO, in which learners can experience and appropriate sophisticated ideas from (but not limited to) the domains of science and mathematics. Proponents of constructivism and direct instruction usually are viewed in opposition to one another. It is suggested here that each has something to learn from the other, and that computer microworlds offer a platform for collaboration.
203 citations
TL;DR: The origins of small-group learning are traced, and one method, cooperative learning, is distinguished from other small- group learning methods.
Abstract: Much published research focuses on the benefits of learning in small groups. However, little research has differentiated small-group learning methods or considered the implications of related research for designing instructional software. In this article, the origins of small-group learning are traced, and one method, cooperative learning, is distinguished from other small-group learning methods. The instructional and social benefits of cooperative learning are examined and theoretical explanations for the effects of grouping are presented. Finally, issues relevant to designing instructional software for cooperative learning are examined and suggestions for future research are made.
168 citations
TL;DR: Metacognition, a construct with strong empirical and theoretical foundations, is integral to successful learning as mentioned in this paper, and has been shown to be useful in instruction and learning processes in a variety of domains.
Abstract: Metacognition, a construct with strong empirical and theoretical foundations, is integral to successful learning. Research on metacognition has provided convincing evidence supporting its importance in the instruction and learning processes. In this article, research on several aspects of metacognition are briefly reviewed and analyzed, examples of metacognitive strategies are provided, and implications for instructional design are described.
150 citations
TL;DR: This article calls for programmatic research on learners' mental models and provides guidelines for the conduct of such research.
Abstract: The difficulty of understanding the structure and functions of computer programs is especially acute when learners are given the freedom to explore hypertext materials in which the possibility of disorientation is strong. Mental model theory is an attempt to model and explain human understanding of objects and phenomena during learning (and other activities). Research on mental models in human-computer interaction can identify important characteristics of cognitive processes and help in the development of research-based guidelines for designing interactive learning systems. This article calls for programmatic research on learners' mental models and provides guidelines for the conduct of such research.
127 citations
TL;DR: This study implies that instructional strategies, including visual displays and feedback, should be applied selectively based on the specific learning requirements of a given task.
Abstract: The effects of two computer-based instructional strategies—visual display and feedback type—were investigated in the acquisition of electronic troubleshooting skills Animation was used to simulate the functional behaviors of electronic circuits and to demonstrate the troubleshooting procedures The first hypothesis tested was that animated visual displays would be more effective than static visual displays if animation was selectively used to support the specific learning requirements of a given task Results supported this hypothesis by showing that college students in the animated visual display condition needed significantly fewer trials than those in the static visual display condition The second hypothesis was that the effectiveness of intentionally mediated feedback (knowledge of results or explanatory information) would be minimal if natural feedback—the system's automatic functional reaction to external inputs—was available and the subject had the basic knowledge needed to understand the system functions The results supported this hypothesis Overall, this study implies that instructional strategies, including visual displays and feedback, should be applied selectively based on the specific learning requirements of a given task
125 citations
TL;DR: TheRapids authoring system is presented, an integrated set of direct manipulation tools for the production of interactive graphical models and instruction based on those models, and a short course based on models of neural networks on the visual retina is described to illustrate the productive application of theRapids simulation and course authoring tools.
Abstract: Model-based training offers a number of potential benefits in training performance of complex tasks, particularly when an interactive device model can be manipulated both by the training system and by the learner. Unlike fixed training systems, simulation-centered training allows the learner to practice in a realistic setting that is not artificially constrained, and it allows the training system to automatically support the learner in attaining complex goals. Rapid authoring of many other learning transactions can also be supported in a model-based environment, enhancing the potential for both high-quality interactive instruction and productivity in the development of such instruction. A potential problem with the model-based approach, however, is that the model development process is traditionally very unproductive and often results in unreliable or unrealistic models of the systems to be learned. Presented in this article is theRapids authoring system, an integrated set of direct manipulation tools for the production of interactive graphical models and instruction based on those models. A short course based on models of neural networks on the visual retina is described to illustrate the productive application of theRapids simulation and course authoring tools.
110 citations
TL;DR: The Science Vision series as discussed by the authors is a hypermedia system developed in response to a clear need for additional resources to educate teachers concerning alternative myths and their use in relation to utilizing resources, such as metaphors, metaphors, and metonyms.
Abstract: Curriculum reform efforts usually have ignored the culture in which curriculum is embedded. Principal components of the culture are the knowledge of teachers and the myths of this culture. Images, metaphors, and metonymies are forms of teacher knowledge that influence the manner in which teachers define their roles and implement the curriculum. Unless endeavors are made to facilitate teacher learning through the construction of new images, metaphors, and metonymies, it is unlikely that curricular reform will proceed in the intended manner. Similarly, the myths that define the customs and taboos of a culture need to be considered by instructional designers if their curricular resources are to be used as intended. The myths ofteacher as controller of students andobjectivism together might persuade teachers to adhere to the more traditional approach whereby knowledge is transferred to students in teacher-controlled activities. This article describes theScience Vision series, a hypermedia system developed in response to a clear need for additional resources to educate teachers concerning alternative myths and their use in relation to utilizing resources.
94 citations
TL;DR: The use of informational feedback has long been advocated and verified as being an important part of learning as discussed by the authors, and many studies have been conducted to examine which variables might affect learning from feedback.
Abstract: The use of informational feedback has long been advocated and verified as being an important part of learning. Many studies have been conducted to examine which variables might affect learning from feedback. The purpose of this review is to examine these studies within various constructs and identify areas that need further investigation and clarification. Feedback is examined from early studies, which viewed the process behaviorally as reinforcement, to present research that advocates an information-processing perspective and an emphasis on error correction. A current model of feedback (Kulhavy & Stock, 1989) is presented as a context for discussion. The issues of response certainty, feedback elaboration, and error analysis are also addressed. Recommendations to future researchers are presented in light of conclusions drawn.
87 citations
TL;DR: Comparisons of instructional support conditions on posttest achievement showed performance to be lowest under learner control, and a strong tendency by learner-control context subjects to vary their selection of contexts across lessons.
Abstract: Learner-control strategies for selecting problem context and the level of instructional support were examined separately and in combination on a computer-based mathematics unit on the metric system Subjects were 240 sixth-grade students assigned to 15 treatments formed by crossing five context conditions (animals, sports, clothing, nocontext, and learner control) with three instructional support conditions (minimum, maximum, and learner control) As hypothesized, comparisons of instructional support conditions on posttest achievement showed performance to be lowest under learner control Subjects opted to view very few items and to decrease the amount they selected over the course of the instruction No effects were associated with the context variable, although on one of the three lessons, learner-control subjects made significantly fewer on-task errors than did no-context subjects Further analyses showed a strong tendency by learner-control context subjects to vary their selection of contexts across lessons Subjects in the context and instructional support learner-control strategies indicated positive attitudes toward the strategies
TL;DR: Wilson and Cole as mentioned in this paper present a Critical Review of Elaboration theory, which is based on the preceding article, "A Critical review of ELaboration Theory, by Brent Wilson and Peggy Cole".
Abstract: In this article, the author comments on the preceding article, “A Critical Review of Elaboration Theory,” by Brent Wilson and Peggy Cole
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the effect of cooperative learning and the need for affiliation on performance, time on task, and satisfaction, and find that subjects who worked cooperatively spent more time working on practice exercises and reported greater satisfaction than those who worked individually.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cooperative learning and the need for affiliation on performance, time on task, and satisfaction. Subjects used either a cooperative or individual learning strategy while receiving information, examples, practice, and feedback from an instructional television lesson. Results indicated that subjects who worked cooperatively spent more time working on practice exercises and reported greater satisfaction than those who worked individually. In addition, results revealed an interaction between instructional method and the need for affiliation. Performance of subjects with a high need for affiliation who worked alone was lower than that of all other groups when subjects were asked to apply what they had learned from the lesson. Implications for employing cooperative groups in settings that were originally designed for individual learning are provided.
TL;DR: This article investigated the effects of three levels of personalization (individualized, group, and non-personalized) on the mathematics achievement of 123 seventh-grade Hispanic boys and girls.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of three levels of personalization—individualized, group, and non-personalized—on the mathematics achievement of 123 seventh-grade Hispanic boys and girls. Personalization was accomplished by using personal information provided by students on a biographical inventory. Subjects were randomly assigned within sex to one of three versions of a two-day instructional program on one-step and two-step mathematics word problems. Subjects in both the individual and group personalization treatments scored significantly higher on the posttest than those in the nonpersonalized treatment on two-step word problems, but not on one-step problems. Subjects in the individualized treatment had significantly more positive attitudes toward the instruction than those in the other two treatments.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine elaboration theory (ET), a model for sequencing and organizing courses which was developed by Charles Reigeluth and associates in the late 1970s, and offer a critique of ET based on recent cognitive research and to offer suggestions for updating the model to reflect new knowledge.
Abstract: In this article the authors examine elaboration theory (ET), a model for sequencing and organizing courses which was developed by Charles Reigeluth and associates in the late 1970s. The purpose of the article is to offer a critique of ET based on recent cognitive research and to offer suggestions for updating the model to reflect new knowledge.
TL;DR: The FullMinus treatment resulted in more positive attitudes while requiring no more time, and performance-contingent incentive groups had higher post-test scores than task- Contingent groups.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of two general approaches to the provision of learner control and of two types of incentive on achievement, use of options, time, and attitude using computer-delivered instruction. Posttest scores for the “FullMinus” treatment for learner control, where learners could selectively bypass elements of a full instructional program, were marginally higher than those for the “LeanPlus” treatment, where learners could opt to add elements to a core program (p=.052). The FullMinus treatment resulted in more positive attitudes while requiring no more time. Performance-contingent incentive groups had higher post-test scores than task-contingent groups (p<.05), with no greater investment of learner time and no negative effect on attitude. The findings relate directly to the design of instructional computer programs as well as to the design of future studies on learner control.
TL;DR: Evaluated variations in learner control on children's level of curiosity and learning from computer-based interactive video presented as a videodisc visit to an art museum found children in the Learner Control with Advisement group scored significantly higher on the achievement posttest than theLearner Control subjects or control group.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of variations in learner control on children's level of curiosity and learning from computer-based interactive video (CBIV). The content was presented as a videodisc visit to an art museum and contained both facts and concepts. A posttest-only control group design was employed with 101 first-and second-grade subjects randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions—Program Control, Learner Control, Learner Control with Advisement—or a control group. The dependent variables were achievement and three measures of curiosity. Children in the Learner Control with Advisement group scored significantly higher on the achievement posttest than the Learner Control subjects or control group. No differences were found between the Program Control and either of the Learner Control groups. For the curiosity measures, the Learner Control with Advisement subjects scored significantly higher than the control group on Content Exploration, and the subjects in the control group scored significantly higher than those in the Program Control group on Persistence.
TL;DR: From the reviews of the literature, procedures for conducting a contextual module analysis and designing integrated instructional strategies to improve acquisition of higher-order processes are proposed.
Abstract: In the past decade, research and theoretical advancements in both cognitive science and instructional technology have led to updates in instructional design theory. In this article, we review two areas in which the updates make important contributions: information analysis for higher-order cognition, and instructional strategies to improve acquisition of such higher-order processes. From our reviews of the literature, we propose procedures for conducting a contextual module analysis and designing integrated instructional strategies. An additional purpose of the article is to demonstrate the need for researchers in educational technology to lead in the discovery of theories contributing to acquisition of higher-order cognition.
TL;DR: The impact of the tools being developed as part of the Second Generation Instructional Design (ID2) Research Program on the process of instructional design is described and rapid prototyping is described.
Abstract: In this article the impact of the tools being developed as part of the Second Generation Instructional Design (ID2) Research Program on the process of instructional design is described. ID2 supports rapid prototyping as a design and development process. Rapid prototyping is described and contrasted with the instructional systems development (ISD) process.
TL;DR: The results of a needs analysis carried out to determine the requirements of teachers who wish to restructure their classrooms are described in this article. And the authors also describe Strategic Teaching Frameworks (STF), a hypermedia computer system that is intended to have a profound impact on professional development for teachers in the United States.
Abstract: This article describes the results of a needs analysis carried out to determine the requirements of teachers who wish to restructure their classrooms. The article also describes Strategic Teaching Frameworks (STF), a hypermedia computer system that is intended to have a profound impact on professional development for teachers in the United States. STF was designed according to the results of the needs analysis. The needs analysis consisted of interviews with 30 teachers who have changed or are in the process of changing their classrooms. The interviews focused on the nature of the teachers' changes and the tools and resources they used to support those changes. Two of the most important resources are the ability to look at other classrooms and the ability to collaborate with colleagues. The interviews also sought to discover what resources the teachers found lacking; among these are time and financial support.
TL;DR: In two field evaluations of instructional software packages, it was found that use of the simplified software evaluation model generally produced evaluative conclusions similar to those reached using the original, more complex model.
Abstract: This article describes the evaluation of a simplified version of the new software evaluation model proposed by Reiser and Dick (1990). This approach to evaluation of instructional software focuses upon the collection of performance data to determine the extent to which students learn the skills the software is designed to teach. In two field evaluations of instructional software packages, it was found that use of the simplified software evaluation model generally produced evaluative conclusions similar to those reached using the original, more complex model. It was also found that student learning data did not support the high ratings assigned by subjective software evaluation services. These findings support the use of the simplified model by teachers and media specialists who have limited time and resources, and stress the need for local on-site evaluation efforts.
TL;DR: This chapter addresses issues of building computational models of tutoring and incorporating instructional principles by addressing the gap between the two disciplines, in terms of goals, motivations, literature, and even defining concepts.
Abstract: This chapter addresses several issues around successful integration of instructional science and computer science. It addresses issues of building computational models of tutoring and incorporating instructional principles. The first barrier to overcome towards this integration is development of principled programs in which cognitive principles about learning and teaching are realized at a level of granularity consistent with building computational models. Such cognitive studies would facilitate fine-grained modelling of learning and teaching. The second barrier to overcome is the gap between the two disciplines, in terms of goals, motivations, literature, and even defining concepts. This situation suggests that a large effort should go into two areas: research on understanding basic principles behind learning and teaching, and the establishment of clearer lines of communication between instructional and computer scientists. This chapter addresses both these issues.
TL;DR: This article reports on a bibliometric research study undertaken to identify authors who are most frequently cited in Educational Technology Research and Development, Educational Communication and Technology Journal, and in the Journal of Instructional Development.
Abstract: This article reports on a bibliometric research study undertaken to identify authors who are most frequently cited inEducational Technology Research and Development, Educational Communication and Technology Journal, and in theJournal of Instructional Development. Thirty-seven authors with 20 or more citations over a five-year period were identified and rank-ordered by total number of citations.
TL;DR: In this article, a cognitively oriented method for developing a useful and predictive model of the process of designing CBI is proposed, and its use in three small-scale case studies in Air Force training settings is reported.
Abstract: Many researchers are attempting to develop automated instructional design systems to guide subject matter experts through the courseware authoring process, a process that usually includes analysis, design, production, implementation, and maintenance. What is lacking in many existing efforts, however, is a systematic method for analyzing the interplay between user characteristics, the authoring environment, and the resulting quality of computer-based instruction (CBI). In this article, a cognitively oriented method for developing a useful and predictive model of the process of designing CBI is proposed, and its use in three small-scale case studies in Air Force training settings is reported.
TL;DR: The article describes how design decisions were driven first by research findings and then by the reality of building effective computer-based training systems within the constraints of operational environments.
Abstract: Since 1976 the authors have been involved in an evolving research and development program focusing on the application of computer-based simulation to diagnostic training in technical environments. Eight simulation-oriented training systems are used to describe the authors' understanding of and approach to student diagnosis. Each of the systems described capitalized on experimental and/or empirical findings from previous experiences. The article describes how design decisions were driven first by research findings and then by the reality of building effective computer-based training systems within the constraints of operational environments.
TL;DR: A study of authoring system technology emphasizes trends in authoring tool characteristics, vendor approaches to the market-place, and evaluation methods and raises questions about some of the often tacit assumptions underlying the technology's development and use.
Abstract: A study of authoring system technology was done to update a previous study done in 1985. While the earlier study focused on software selection methods, the current one emphasizes trends in authoring tool characteristics, vendor approaches to the market-place, and evaluation methods. It also raises questions about some of the often tacit assumptions underlying the technology's development and use.
TL;DR: It is argued that conventional authoring systems may not be as inadequate or inferior as ID expert system developers have claimed, and that of two approaches to ID automation, tools emphasizing information management are probably most useful.
Abstract: Alternative approaches to developing software automating instructional development are described in this article. Information management and expert system approaches are compared. General assumptions underlying the development of all authoring tools, including conventional authoring systems, and additional assumptions underlying the development of expert ID tools are identified. Questions are raised concerning the viability of ID automation tools. It is argued that conventional authoring systems may not be as inadequate or inferior as ID expert system developers have claimed, and that of two approaches to ID automation, tools emphasizing information management are probably most useful. Information management tools, however, still may be inappropriate in some contexts.
TL;DR: In this article, a special issue dealing with the question of how cognitive science and educational technology can contribute to the advancement of instructional design theory is presented. The articles cover a wide spectrum of relevant problems.
Abstract: [] This special issue deals with the question of how cognitive science and educational technology can contribute to the advancement of instructional design theory. The articles cover a wide spectrum of relevant problems. When we consider the notion of educational technology, we are confronted with the astonishing fact that even though the problem of teaching is as old as humankind itself, instructional design (ID) is a relatively new field of study in comparison to others. This is especially true of the theory of ID. In North America, ID as a technology-that is, as a systematic procedure for structuring a suitable environment for learning (Schiffman, 1991)--is applied to various learning outcomes (Gagn6, 1962). This provides the basis for a reflection about the theoretical fundamentals of ID. In a book edited by Reigeluth (1983), various models of ID are presented, with theoretical considerations added by the editor. Now, new media and inexpensive computers offer additional possibilities and challenges to the present educational technology. In addition, new developments from cognitive psychology in higher-order cognition offer more understanding of learning processes. Consequently, various implications for ID can be expected. Among other things, the most recent developments in cognitive psychology are characterized by the following three trends: 1. The complexity of the subject matter of learning and problem solving is becoming better understood through more naturalistic examinations and is not isolated for laboratory examination purposes in the same way as in earlier research.