Showing papers in "Elementary School Journal in 2004"

Developing Measures of Teachers’ Mathematics Knowledge for Teaching

Abstract: In this article we discuss efforts to design and empirically test measures of teachers’ content knowledge for teaching elementary mathematics. We begin by reviewing the literature on teacher knowledge, noting how scholars have organized such knowledge. Next we describe survey items we wrote to represent knowledge for teaching mathematics and results from factor analysis and scaling work with these items. We found that teachers’ knowledge for teaching elementary mathematics was multidimensional and included knowledge of various mathematical topics (e.g., number and operations, algebra) and domains (e.g., knowledge of content, knowledge of students and content). The constructs indicated by factor analysis formed psychometrically acceptable scales.

The Classroom Assessment Scoring System: Findings from the prekindergarten year.

Abstract: Research on teacher-child relationships, classroom environments, and teaching practices provided the rationale for constructing a system for observing and assessing emotional and instructional elements of quality in early childhood educational environments: the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS). The CLASS provides a framework for observing key dimensions of classroom processes, such as emotional and instructional support, that contribute to quality of the classroom setting from preschool through third grade. This article provides information about the development, field testing, and use of this instrument in prekindergarten. Data from a national sample of 224 prekindergarten classrooms in 6 states are presented to provide reliability and validity information. The full range of the scale was used for the majority of ratings. Ratings reflected generally positive impressions of the classroom environment and teacher-child interactions. Factor scores from the CLASS were related to the Early Childhood...

Primary-Grade Teachers' Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Attitudes toward Teaching, and Discipline and Teaching Practice Priorities in Relation to the "Responsive Classroom" Approach

Abstract: In this study we examined the ways in which experience with a relational approach to education, the Responsive Classroom (RC) Approach, related to teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and teaching priorities. Questionnaire and Q-sort data were collected for a sample of 69 teachers in grades kindergarten through 3 at 6 schools (3 schools in their first year of RC implementation and 3 comparison schools) in a district with a diverse student body (54% ethnic minorities, 35% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch). Findings showed that teachers who reported using more RC practices reported greater self-efficacy beliefs and teaching practice priorities that were consistent with those of the RC approach. Teachers at RC schools were also more likely to report positive attitudes toward teaching as a profession and to hold disciplinary and teaching practice priorities that were aligned with the goals of the RC approach. Findings are discussed in relation to the teacher and school changes that accompanied implementation...

Academic Resilience in Mathematics among Poor and Minority Students.

Abstract: Based on national data from the Prospects study, we identified the individual characteristics that distinguished academically successful, or resilient, elementary school students from minority and low-socioeconomic-status (SES) backgrounds from their less successful, or nonresilient, counterparts. We also formulated and tested 4 models of the risk factors and resilience-promoting features of schools: (a) effective schools; (b) peer group composition; (c) school resources; and (d) the supportive school community model. Our results suggested that minority students from low-SES backgrounds were exposed to greater risks and fewer resilience-promoting conditions than otherwise similar low-SES White students. Results, though, generally supported the applicability of uniform individual- and school-level models of academic resiliency to all low-SES students, regardless of their race. Greater engagement in academic activities, an internal locus of control, efficaciousness in math, a more positive outlook toward sc...

Low-Income Parents' Beliefs About their Role in Children's Academic Learning.

Abstract: In individual telephone interviews, 234 low-income African-American, Caucasian, and Latino parents rated the importance of helping their second- and third-grade children in reading, math, and homework and of knowing what their children are learning. Parents reported whether they had taught their child in math and reading and read with their child in the past week. They also answered open-ended questions about the type of help they deemed appropriate. On questionnaires, teachers rated each student's reading and math skills and noted whether they had given a child's parent suggestions for helping with either subject. Findings showed that parents rated the importance of helping their child with academic work very high. Parents of second graders tended to rate the importance of helping higher than did parents of third graders. Similar to past research, ratings varied systematically as a function of parents' perceptions of children's academic performance and as a function of whether teachers had offered sugges...

Developing Measures of Content Knowledge for Teaching Reading.

Abstract: In this article we present results from a project to develop survey measures of the content knowledge teachers need to teach elementary reading In areas such as mathematics and science, there has been great interest in the specialized ways teachers need to know a subject to teach it to others—often referred to as pedagogical content knowledge However, little is known about what teachers need to know about reading to teach it effectively We begin the article by discussing what might constitute content knowledge for teaching reading and by describing the survey items we wrote Next, factor and scaling results are presented from a pilot study of 261 multiple‐choice items with 1,542 elementary teachers We found that content knowledge for teaching reading included multiple dimensions, defined both by topic and by how teachers use knowledge in teaching practice Items within these constructs formed reliable scales

The First Days of School in the Classrooms of Two More Effective and Four Less Effective Primary-Grades Teachers

Abstract: We observed 6 primary-grades teachers in public and private schools in this study. Based on mid-year observations, 2 of these teachers were much more effective compared to the other 4 in producing greater student engagement and literacy progress, as determined by video and observation data of multiple content areas and as rated by the Classroom AIMS instrument. These 2 more effective teachers began the school year differently than the other teachers, again documented through observation of their teaching. Consistent with previous studies, the 2 more effective teachers did more to establish routines and procedures at the beginning of the year. In addition, compared to the less effective teachers, on the first days of school the more effective teachers offered more engaging activities, more enthusiastically introduced reading and writing, indicated higher expectations, praised specific accomplishments of students, pointed out when specific students were behaving in a praiseworthy fashion, and encouraged stu...

Using Teacher Logs to Measure the Enacted Curriculum: A Study of Literacy Teaching in Third‐Grade Classrooms

Abstract: In this article we examine methodological and conceptual issues that emerge when researchers measure the enacted curriculum in schools. After outlining key theoretical considerations that guide measurement of this construct and alternative strategies for collecting and analyzing data on it, we illustrate one approach to gathering and analyzing data on the enacted curriculum. Using log data on the reading/language arts instruction of more than 150 third‐grade teachers in 53 high‐poverty elementary schools participating in the Study of Instructional Improvement, we estimated several hierarchical linear models and found that the curricular content of literacy instruction (a) varied widely from day to day, (b) did not vary much among students in the same classroom, but (c) did vary greatly across classrooms, largely as the result of teachers’ participation in 1 of the 3 instructional improvement interventions (Accelerated Schools, America’s Choice, and Success for All) under study. The implications o...

Effects of Two Tutoring Programs on the English Reading Development of Spanish-English Bilingual Students

Abstract: Spanish-dominant bilingual students in grades 2-5 were tutored 3 times per week for 40 minutes over 10 weeks, using 2 English reading interventions. Tutoring took place from February through April of 1 school year. One, Read Well, combined systematic phonics instruction with practice in decodable text, and the other, a revised version of Read Naturally, consisted of repeated reading, with contextualized vocabulary and comprehension instruction. The progress of tutored students (n = 51) was compared to that of nontutored classmates (n = 42) using subtests of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised. Students who received systematic phonics instruction made significant progress in word identification but not in word attack or passage comprehension. There were no significant effects for students in the repeated reading condition.

Effectiveness of Explicit and Constructivist Mathematics Instruction for Low-Achieving Students in the Netherlands

Abstract: In this study we compared the effects of small-group constructivist and explicit mathematics instruction in basic multiplication on low-achieving students' performance and motivation. A total of 265 students (aged 8-11 years) from 13 general and 11 special elementary schools for students with learning and/or behavior disorders participated in the study. The experimental groups received 30 minutes of constructivist or explicit instruction in groups of 5 students twice weekly for 5 months. Pre- and posttests were conducted to compare the effects on students' automaticity, problem-solving, strategy use, and motivation to the performance of a control group who followed the regular curriculum. Results showed that the math performance of students in the explicit instruction condition improved significantly more than that of students in the constructivist condition, and the performance of students in both experimental conditions improved significantly more than that of students in the control condition. Only a f...

Fourth Graders' Motivation in an Elementary Physical Education Running Program

Abstract: In this study we examined students' motivation in an elementary physical education running program using achievement goal theory and an expectancy-value model of achievement choice as theoretical frameworks. Fourth graders (N = 119) completed questionnaires assessing their achievement goals, expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, and intention for future participation in running. They also completed a 1-mile run as a performance outcome. Results indicated that achievement goals, expectancy-related beliefs, and subjective task values were related to one another and were predictive of children's intention for future participation in running and their performance on the 1-mile run. Although boys and girls did not differ significantly in mean scores on the variables, they seemed to be motivated by a different combination of achievement goals, expectancy-related beliefs, and subjective task values. Findings provided empirical evidence supporting the use of multiple theoretical perspectives in moti...

Professional Development Standards and Practices in Elementary School Mathematics.

Abstract: In this article I argue that the literature describing effective professional development is missing at least 2 key pieces of information-typical professional development that reaches typical teachers and how effective recent standards are in assisting district or school personnel to design and/or choose high-quality staff development experiences. To fill this gap, I used commonly cited professional development standards to analyze observations of 13 professional development sessions in mathematics in an eastern state, seeking to understand what teachers might have learned and how that content related to the standards. These observations were made over 6 months and included professional development provided by teachers, district officials, consultants, and university staff. I found that although much of the observed professional development met published standards, it often treated mathematics and student learning superficially. I suggest reasons for the failure of literature-based standards to discrimina...

Inclusive Teachers' Attitudes toward Their Students with Disabilities: A Replication and Extension

Abstract: This investigation replicated and extended previous research regarding the attitudes of inclusive teachers toward their students with disabilities. Participating teachers included 46 inclusive teachers (grades K-5) from 16 elementary schools in 7 Northeast Ohio school districts. Teachers nominated 3 students in 4 attitudinal categories: attachment, concern, indifference, and rejection. Results indicated that (a) included students with disabilities were significantly overrepresented (in comparison to nondisabled students) among teachers' concern, indifference, and rejection nominations; (b) included students with mild disabilities were significantly overrepresented (in comparison to students with severe disabilities) among teachers' concern nominations; and (c) included students were significantly more likely to receive concern nominations in high-socioeconomic status (SES) school districts and from experienced teachers, and to be nominated in the rejection category in classes with no paraprofessional and ...

Assessing the Validity of a Language Arts Instruction Log through Triangulation

Abstract: In this study we attempted to illuminate why measures of instruction sometimes fail to meet discrete tests of validity. We used a triangulation strategy—multiple methods, data sources, and researchers—to investigate teachers’ and observers’ reports on a daily language arts log. Data came from a pilot study of the log conducted in 8 urban public elementary schools. Statistical results increased our confidence in the log’s ability to measure (a) instruction at grosser levels of detail, (b) instructional activities that occurred more frequently, and (c) word analysis instruction. Some qualitative evidence gave us greater confidence in the instrument, for example, when teachers differed from observers because they possessed background knowledge not available to observers. Other qualitative evidence illustrated dilemmas inherent in measuring instruction. Overall, we believe triangulation strategies provided a more holistic understanding of the validity of teachers’ reports of instruction than past val...

Contexts and Practices of Six Schools Successful in Obtaining Reading Achievement

Abstract: In this study we examined the contexts and practices of 6 Vermont schools whose students met or exceeded standards set for performance on statewide reading tests administered at second and fourth grade. Demographic data on all elementary schools in Vermont were used in a cluster analysis to identify schools serving low-, middle-, and high-socioeconomic-status (SES) communities. 2 high-performing schools and 1 low-performing school were selected from each cluster. During 8-15 visits to each school, all K-4 teachers and administrators, as well as persons identified as key to a school's literacy practices, were interviewed and observed. Findings indicated that all SES clusters had high-performing schools and that, among these schools, instructional approaches varied. We identified 4 factors common to successful schools and absent in less successful schools: (1) within schools, the commitment to literacy improvement had remained strong over an 8- to 10-year period, with stable administrative and curricular le...

The Role of Text and Text-Reader Interactions in Young Children's Reading Development and Achievement.

Abstract: One of the most rapidly developing areas of educational innovation involves the texts available to young readers and their teachers, leading to a host of new issues regarding the characteristics and roles of text that support young children’s learning. This article describes research conducted by investigators at the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) to increase knowledge about the role of text and text‐reader interactions in young children’s reading development and achievement. Questions driving CIERA inquiry about readers and text include: What are useful ways to characterize and evaluate the texts that young readers experience? Findings in response to this question point to the trade‐offs when publishers place differential emphases on high‐quality literature as opposed to the accessibility of the text. In response to the question, What do reading researchers know about the ways young children experience texts that can be applied to creating more meaningful texts a...

Comprehensive School Reform: An Implementation Study of Preschool Programs in Elementary Schools

Abstract: In this article we describe research in which we used focus group data to study the implementation of preschool programs in elementary schools. 20 preschool teachers, 22 kindergarten teachers, and 53 parents from 10 schools in 5 states participated in the focus groups. These data, collected in the spring of 2001, were part of a 3-year multisite study of a comprehensive school reform program, the School of the 21st Century. Participants reported that implementation benefits included opportunities for preschool and elementary teachers to collaborate on and to coordinate curriculum and the needs of individual students, improved transitions to kindergarten for preschool students and their parents, and increased and sustained parent involvement. Reported implementation challenges included negotiating the use of classrooms, conflict in the sharing of resources such as the library and playground, building an understanding and respect for preschool education on the part of elementary school teachers, dealing with...

Using Instructional Logs to Study Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching in the Early Grades

Abstract: In this article we describe the mathematics curriculum and teaching practices in a purposive sample of high‐poverty elementary schools working with 3 of the most widely disseminated comprehensive school reform programs in the United States. Data from 19,999 instructional logs completed by 509 first‐, third‐, and fourth‐grade teachers in 53 schools showed that the mathematics taught in these schools was conventional despite a focus in the schools on instructional improvement. The typical lesson focused on number concepts and operations, had students working mostly with whole numbers (rather than other rational numbers), and involved direct teaching or review and practice of routine skills. However, there was wide variation in content coverage and teaching practice within and among schools, with variability among teachers in the same school being far greater than variability among teachers across schools. The results provide an initial view of the state of mathematics education in a sample of schoo...

The Development of Literacy in Preschool and Primary Grades: Work by the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.

Abstract: To reach the national goal that all children in the United States will read at an appropriate level by the end of third grade, the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) has studied the reading growth of children in preschool and primary classes, both in and out of school. Our framework suggests that children need to develop their knowledge of language and the ability to recognize words fluently so that they can understand the books they read. CIERA’s work has attempted to explicate how this development occurs and how supportive learning environments can foster it, especially for high‐poverty and linguistically diverse children. This article reviews our work in early language development and literacy assessment and the development of word‐recognition abilities, in the environments of preschools, primary‐grade classes, and home‐school connections, with the intention of understanding how these environments can more effectively provide the support needed for all children to ...

Reading Assessments in Kindergarten through Third Grade: Findings from the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement

Abstract: Assessment of early reading development is important for all stakeholders. It can identify children who need special instruction and provide useful information to parents as well as summative accounts of early achievement in schools. Researchers at the Center for Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) investigated early reading assessment in a variety of studies that employed diverse methods. One group of studies used survey methods to determine the kinds of assessments available to teachers and the teachers’ reactions to the assessments. A second group of studies focused on teachers’ use of informal reading inventories for formative and summative purposes. In a third group of studies, researchers designed innovative assessments of children’s early reading, including narrative comprehension, adult‐child interactive reading, the classroom environment, and instructional texts. The CIERA studies provide useful information about current reading assessments and identify promising new directions.

Research on Learning to Read—at School, at Home, and in the Community

Abstract: This article reviews research conducted at the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement that investigated the effects of home, community, school, and teacher factors on students’ reading achievement. First, we review studies that highlight the importance of positive school‐home partnerships and open communication between schools and families. Then, we summarize studies investigating the characteristics of schools that were effective in teaching students to read. Leadership, collaboration in the teaching of reading and in sustained professional development, and positive home‐school connections were found to be especially important. Finally, we review a large‐scale, 3‐year project in which a framework for change built on collaboration and reflection on teaching was used to help teachers improve their reading instruction. The school change framework was found to be effective in schools in which leadership, collaboration, and sustained professional development efforts were in place. We...

Transforming Knowledge into Professional Development Resources: Six Teachers Implement a Model of Teaching for Understanding Text

Abstract: This article describes our attempts to transform knowledge from classroom implementations into resources, which we call Accessibles, to support teachers' implementation of Questioning the Author (QtA), an instructional approach aimed at building students' understanding of what they read. We developed 25 Accessibles, which are brief, single-issue documents available for teachers to use on their own. Each Accessible presents examples of classroom interactions and explicates how those interactions exemplify QtA issues or solutions to issues. In this article we report the results of a field test to document the effects of the Accessibles. 6 teachers implemented QtA in their classrooms in reading and social studies over 7 months. Transcripts of videotaped lessons, collected before the teachers began QtA, and QtA lesson transcripts were analyzed for patterns of classroom discourse interactions in terms of the kinds of questions asked, students' responses, and teachers' rejoinders to students. Results showed tha...

Research on Literacy Policy and Professional Development: National, State, District, and Teacher Contexts

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to review the research on policy and professional development undertaken by the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) and to suggest how this work has advanced knowledge in these areas. This research provides a base for understanding the relations between effective teaching and learning in reading and the national, state, district, and school policy contexts that mediate classroom practice. The CIERA studies reviewed have consistently shown evidence of improved instruction and student literacy learning in contexts characterized by strong centralized supports, such as leadership within the school and/or district and networks or communities of practice that include strong teacher leaders. These findings lay the groundwork for future investigations of how best to establish such contexts in settings where they do not now exist, and of the resulting effects on students’ reading achievement. These findings also have implications for literacy poli...