Showing papers in "IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management in 1983"

A process model for industrial new product development

Abstract: What steps should the industrial new product manager take to improve new product performance? This article pulls together the findings from the many research studies into what makes a new product a success. Six important lessons for managers are developed from those studies. The lessons point to a flow model approach to the development and commercialization of a new product — a step-by-step approach to successful product innovation. A seven-stage model, designed to move a product from the idea stage to product launch, is described. Actual case histories illustrate how each stage of the model can be implemented.

Priority setting in complex problems

Abstract: There are three principles which one can recognize in problem solving. They are the principles of decomposition, comparative judgments, and synthesis of priorities. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) provides a comprehensive framework to cope with the intuitive, the rational, and the irrational in us all at the same time when we make decisions. It is a method we can use to integrate our perceptions and purposes into an overall synthesis. The AHP does not require that judgments be consistent or even transitive. The degree of consistency (or inconsistency) of the judgments is revealed at the end of the AHP process.

A participative approach to program evaluation

Abstract: This paper discusses the methodology for the measurement of subjective values via constant-sum comparisons, the development of a Hierarchical Decision Model (HDM), and the formation of expert consensus through the hierarchical decision process. Its focus is on post-program evaluation, but the methodology is equally applicable to pre-program evaluation, ongoing program evaluation, goal formation, capital expenditures, resource allocations, project selection, project performance evaluation, and many other similar decisions in a wide range of management situations.

Characteristics of sources, channels, and contents for scientific and technical information systems in industrial R and D

Abstract: Reports on the use of various scientific and technical information sources by scientists, engineers, and managers. By using a Thurstone scaling technique, the frequency of use of the various sources, channels, and contents were correlated with various characteristics. For the sources of scientific and technical information, the following characteristics were of interest: the skill necessary to use effectively, the utility of information, source availability, ease and cost of use. For the content, these characteristics were looked at: the skills necessary to use effectively, utility of information, coherence of information, and ease of use. Finally, for the channels, the skills necessary to use effectively, dependability, availability, physical distance, and cost were investigated. The data from a large number of respondents from a large corporation showed that source availability and ease of use are the determinants for use of a specific source. Availability, cost, and physical distance are most important in use of a specific channel of information. Utility of information and coherence of information are the only factors related to use.

Quantitative case histories of urban innovations: Are there innovating stages?

Abstract: A widely accepted `phase theorem' in the literature on organizational decision-making and innovation asserts that these processes occur in a series of sequential stages The theorem is tested in a study on adoption of three types of urban innovations, in which 2000 episodes in the innovating process are scored on type of innovating function (or stage) and time of occurrence For three pre-implementation functions of search, design, and appraisal, the data confirm a previous finding that these functions largely coincide in time From a broader perspective of the total innovating process, however, clear separation appears between the first function of concern and later functions of implementation and diffusion The data support a `demand pull' rather than a `technology push' account of organizational innovating This paper suggests that for simple innovations that are borrowed with little change, the succession of stages will be moderately clear But for organizational innovations that are originated or highly adapted, or those that are complex or uncertain, the staging sequence will appear overlapping and disorderly

Programmatic evaluation and comparison based on standardized citation scores

Abstract: The evaluation of scientific and technological performance is a complex process requiring many sources of input and that must be carefully synthesized and interpreted. One measure of performance is the number of citations received by an individual's scientific publications or patents. A methodology is proposed for standardizing citation counts that allows them to be directly compared for individuals working in different time frames and in different subject areas. Standardized performance measures for individuals can be aggregated to study group performance or to compare performances across subgroups or entire programs. The use of citation-based indicators has the advantage of providing large-scale evaluations at relatively low cost.

Managing engineers effectively

Abstract: The professional needs of engineering personnel are investigated. Their degree of satisfaction is positively associated with overall engineering performance. All of the sixteen specific needs analyzed involve three primary issues: (1) people skills, (2) organizational structure, and (3) management style, influenced by the task to be performed and the surrounding environment. To be effective, engineering managers must understand the dynamics of their organizations so they can diagnose potential problems and the need for change. Specific suggestions are made to increase the engineering manager's effectiveness and to improve overall engineering productivity.

Approaches to the study of implementation

Abstract: This paper draws from an intensive review of measurement in previous investigations of implementation to examine the relationship of this construct to other innovation processes. It is suggested that implementation be viewed as a separate phase in a total technology transfer process, with clear analytic distinction from both innovation adoption and evaluation of outcomes. A framework for developing measures of implementation is presented, based on distinguishing among four classes of innovations: policy change innovations; multiple component innovations; multiple user innovations; and mixed type innovations.

Quantitative indicators for evaluation of basic research programs/projects

Abstract: Examination of quantitative indicators of the publishing activity of researchers enables managers to assess basic research projects and programs in their organizations along the dimensions of quantity, quality, interdisciplinarity, internationally, degree of collaboration, etc. Combined with other indicators (e.g. professional and chronological ages of researchers, highest degree, degree conferring institution), they give management a good quantitative snapshot of some of the measurable aspects of their projects and programs. These literature indicators must be used very carefully in evaluation. For example, since they are statistical indicators, they are more valid when applied to groups of researchers than to an individual researcher. This paper illustrates the use of quantitative indicators in the evaluation of actual projects/programs of federal agencies that support basic research. It also contains `field norm' tables that describe a number of statistical characteristics of randomly selected academic researchers working in six different R&D areas. These tables enable the R&D manager to compare his staff and its publication performance with a baseline measure of academic research performance.

Functional management in matrix organizations

Abstract: Six roles of functional managers are defined by analysis of a role relationship diagram. A time allocation survey shows that the time spent on two of the roles (task management and employee development) is independent of the functional manager level; the time spent on two of the roles (knowledge updating and technical consulting) decreases with the manager level; and the time spent on the remaining two roles (technical administration and organization development) increases with the manager level. Pros and cons and problems of matrix organizations are discussed from the perspectives of a functional management practitioner and various techniques for maximizing engineering productivity are suggested. Further studies are recommended, and a series of questions, which are relevant in all matrix organizations, is presented.

Performance gap theories of innovation

Abstract: Although performance gaps have long been assumed to stimulate innovative organizations, the theory has rarely been tested. In a secondary data analysis of 147 food processing firms, it was found that performance gaps are significantly correlated with objective measures of environmental uncertainty but not with innovation among firms in this sample. It was hypothesized that since performance gaps might impinge upon the availability of slack resources to the firm, small firms would be discouraged from innovating after experiencing a performance gap and large firms would be encouraged to innovate in response to a performance gap. Modest support for this proposition was obtained. Three other propositions were strongly supported by these data. Perceived rather than objective measures of environmental uncertainty are significantly correlated with radical innovation in firms that have successfully avoided severe performance gaps, most probably because they are significantly more likely to have formulated and implemented an aggressive technology policy. It appears that environmental change and turbulence that cause performance gaps can promote innovation for an organization if they can be anticipated, but will discourage especially radical innovation once they have led to a severe performance gap.

Flexiplace: An idea whose time has come

Abstract: Flexiplace involves giving people greater options on where they work, including possibilities to work at home part or all of the time. There is a growing potential for such arrangements, especially for engineers. To be successful, however, flexiplace must be voluntary and designed to fit particular needs and circumstances. Possible benefits and drawbacks of flexiplace for individuals, firms, and the community are discussed in the light of recent experience and prospective economic and technological trends.

Identifying operative goals by modeling project selection decisions in research and development

Abstract: In an R&D laboratory, behavioral decision theory was used to identify operative goals as a method of organizational analysis Six goals were used as criteria in a decision-making exercise wherein 69 managers made decisions about hypothetical projects Two goals accounted for 84 percent of the explainable variance and were deemed operative goals Furthermore, a lack of consensus concerning these goals' importance existed among the laboratory's four divisions

A proposed project termination audit model

Abstract: Project postmortem analysis, if conducted at all, is generally cursory. Often organizational pressures preclude an independent and comprehensive examination of completed projects. A project audit or outcome evaluation can be extremely constructive and a valuable tool for both the technical and managerial organization. Not only can it help focus on objectives and the accomplishment of those objectives, but it can also provide guidance to the conceptual, formative, and operational phases of future projects.

Project management and innovation in the scientific instrument industry

Abstract: A comparative analysis was undertaken of the performance of firms in the scientific instrument industry in the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany. Forty on-site interviews were done, representing thirty-three companies in the two countries. A scored structured interview technique was used to collect data which were then analyzed for factors affecting performance in new product development. Particular attention was paid to the characteristics and role of the project leader. The findings indicate that there are not only differences between countries but also between projects led by people with different qualifications and, in particular, different backgrounds and experience. The influence of variables associated with communication abilities is identified and implications of this for project management are noted.

Technological and other determinants of the international competitiveness of U.S. industries

Abstract: The development of effective policies to strengthen the competitiveness of the domestic industries already under severe pressure from foreign products, as well as of those industries likely to face such increasing pressures in the years ahead, must be based on more precise diagnoses of the factors undermining their market shares not only in home markets but also abroad. This paper presents some of the emerging conclusions of an exploratory study, supported by the National Science Foundation, concerning the roles of technological innovations and other determinants of the international competitiveness of a small sample of domestic industries. Primary attention has been focused on the steel, tire, machine tool, and robot industries in order to sample different degrees of current and prospective import pressures in domestic markets. But some peripheral attention has also been given to a variety of other industrial sectors which have been experiencing similar pressures.

R&D management and financial performance

Abstract: Empirical results of research into the relationship of RD the organizational structure of the RD and the relationship between R&D and other parts of the company. In this context, setting of goals, overall planning, initiation of project, budgeting and control, and the transfer of results to other functions are examined. Return on capital is used as a measure of performance rather than subjective appraisals, the number of patents granted, or measures which are only indirectly related to R&D's effect on company performance. For several integrative devices it is found that there exists an optimum for their development beyond which performance falls off. In particular, this is true for the influence of marketing on R&D.

Implementation of social program innovations in public sector organizations: A test of the modified RD and D model

Abstract: Describes a study which provided information concerning the viability of the `modified' Research, Development, and Dissemination as a vehicle for the dissemination of social innovations. Modifications of the classical RD and D model which were introduced by the National Diffusion Network (NDN) of the federal Department of Education and the Exemplary Projects Program of the federal Department of Justice included the utilization of practitioner-developed programs, site visits, on-going technical assistance, and linkage agents. A study of three NDN and four Exemplary Projects was designed to measure the extent of innovation implementation (fidelity) at 129 adopting sites. The innovations were diverse in content and implementing context, with field sites including schools, courts, prisons, police departments, and social service agencies. A major thrust of the research was the refining of a methodology for measuring innovation implementation. This involved identifying innovation components and scaling each component in terms of ideal, acceptable, and unacceptable variations. Results of the research showed that mean fidelity scores for each innovation all fell within the acceptable range, thus providing support for the modified RD and D model. However, significant differences among innovations indicated the necessity of further research to explicate mediating variables.

The evaluation cycle: In Res evaluation approaches for the eighties

Abstract: There is a lack of consensus in the literature and in practice regarding evaluation measures for engineering and research projects The lack of consensus is especially clear when the evaluation focus is on the implementation or in res stage of the evaluation cycle The absence of a systems-based perspective and a concomitant consideration of six interrelated factors helps to explain the controversy and confusion over project evaluation measures The six factors are: nature of decision-making tasks, level of managerial decision-making, unit of evaluation, primary and secondary consumers of evaluation, ease of quantification, and elements of general setting (including project technology, political context, coupling pattern among units involved in the project, and reward structure) The discussion of these six factors' impacts upon evaluation makes clear the need for dynamic project evaluation approaches which utilize both qualitative and quantitative data One such approach is the use of modified ethnographic techniques in constructing project case studies which capture effectively what actually occurs during project implementation

Collaborative publication and research in computer science

Abstract: Study of collaboration in research and publication is examined as a means for understanding the sociological aspects of R&D and to aid in policy formulation and R&D management. Despite some limitations, nonreactive bibliometric methods are more effective than the survey method for estimating the degree of collaboration in R&D. The mean number of authors per paper and the ratio of multiple-author papers to the total number of papers published in a discipline can be used as unobtrusive indicators of the degree of collaboration in research and publication. Within computer science, there seems to be a higher degree of collaborative R&D in hardware and applications areas than in the software area. The mean number of authors per paper across all the subfields of computer science is about 1.7. The average size of collaborative R&D teams is about 2.7 persons. Computer science as a discipline is closer to mathematics than to biochemistry or chemical engineering, both of which are highly collaborative fields.

Modeling product development decision policies of managers and management students: Differences between subjective and relative weights

Abstract: This research adapted the behavioral decision theory modeling approach to capture product development decision policies. 29 students in a strategic management course, 38 students in an introductory management course, and 50 managers completed a simulated product development decision-making exercise. Significant policy differences were observed among the groups in terms of the average weights attributed to two of the criteria, and the internal consistency of the decision makers. Both the managers and students exhibited poor insight into their own decision as there were significant differences between their relative (objective) weights from the exercise and their subjective (stated) weights. Therefore, to accurately capture product development decision policies, one must observe multiple decisions rather than ask subjects to state their decision policies.

The management of federal research programs: Part I — Variations in techniques

Abstract: Two hundred and fifteen (215) managers of basic and applied research programs in the federal government responded to a survey about how they carry out various functions related to research program management (eg, identifying objectives, planning, evaluating) Analysis of the responses showed only weak relationships between variables that might be thought to influence the techniques used to manage these programs (eg, diciplinary area of the research and whether the program was characterized as conducting basic or applied research) and the way in which the programs are actually managed The agency in which the program is located does appear to have a major influence on management style

Editorial: Innovation processes research implications for public policy

Abstract: This volume can of necessity report only a few of the salient pieces of research in the tradition described in this introduction. Much of this research is still in process; other pieces have been reported in other media. We feel, however, that the effort to showcase a sample of innovation analyses, and thereby give some idea of the range of topics and approaches which the field requires, will ultimately improve the efficiency of both the research process and its utilization in the policy context. Comments, on both the specific research angles reported here and the research program direction generally, are cordially invited by the authors.

The diagnosis of plant failure: A comparison of student and professional engineers

Abstract: A problem of plant failure was presented individually to (a) experienced professionals, and (b) senior engineering students in the University of Melbourne. Each participant in the experiment was asked to assess the problem and try to solve it, his verbal response to this request being tape-recorded; written replies from other students who had answered the problem as an examination question were also available. All responses were analyzed in terms of the strategies and tactics adopted by the engineers and the intellectual style displayed in their attempts to solve the problem. The results showed that the older professionals were more fluent, better able to sidestep dead ends in their thinking, somewhat more disciplined in avoiding early commitment to particular hypotheses, better able to make use of negative information, more likely to refer to past experience, more suspicious of the information provided, and somewhat more likely to identify a key issue which was not immediately obvious.

R&D and quality assurance partnership

Abstract: Complex R&D programs, such as end-product oriented VLSI developments, require utilization and integration of teams consisting of individuals representing a wide variety of different areas of expertise. The needed expertise can be provided by a highly professional quality assurance team equipped with state-of-the-art analytical instrumentation. Its integration into the total program team with additional program and market-oriented objectives can provide an increased overall effectiveness. Successful experience with the combined team strategy, as applied during a 32-bit VLSI development program, is described here in terms of the program environment, conditions leading to the decision to invite the quality assurance team to participate, changes introduced, and specialized knowledge contributed. Results of this strategy are evaluated in the context of program and project management.

Technical and management notes: The roles of expanded awareness and inner awareness in technological creativity

Abstract: This note lends support to an early conjecture by William Shockley (1957) on the qualities of consciousness attributable to the creative technologist. The roles of expanded awareness and the ability to experience thoughts at their source are traced through the statements of outstanding creative technologists as well as leading students of creativity. A possible technique for developing those qualities of consciousness is indicated. Recent experiment gives direct verification of the technique's effectiveness.

The management of federal research programs: Part II — Patterns of management

Abstract: Analyses of responses to a survey of 215 managers of basic and applied research programs in the federal government were undertaken to identify factors that are useful in describing the pattern, or mix, of management techniques used by a program. Results indicate that the program's agency setting is of overwhelming importance. Of lesser importance are the position of the program on the spectrum of basic to applied research and the extent to which program management is “top down.”