Showing papers in "Infant Behavior & Development in 1981"
TL;DR: The Carey ITQ is an assessment of maternal characteristics as well as of maternal perceptions of infant temperament, and maternal characteristics and attitudes were related more frequently to maternal behavior at 6 months than to infant behavior.
Abstract: A large group of infants from a longitudinal study of mother–infant interaction was assessed using the Carey Infant Temperament Questionnaire (ITQ) at 6 months of life. Temperament diagnoses of “easy,” “intermediate low,” “intermediate high,” and “difficult” were derived from the ITQ dimension scores, and were related to a variety of maternal characteristics and attitudes measured at the infant’s third postnatal month as well as to behaviors observed during feeding and play interactions at the infant’s sixth postnatal month. The only significant relationships were between the ITQ diagnostic categories and maternal variables measured at 3 months. Maternal characteristics and attitudes were related more frequently to maternal behavior at 6 months than to infant behavior. It is concluded that, for this sample, the Carey ITQ is an assessment of maternal characteristics as well as of maternal perceptions of infant temperament.
168 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of the syllable in the processing of speech in very young infants was assessed using three kinds of stimuli: syllabic, non-syllabic and syntactic sequences, which were presented to infants who were less than 2 months old in an habituation-dishabituation paradigm.
Abstract: The aim of the research we have carried out is to assess the role of the syllable in the processing of speech in the very young infant. We used three kinds of stimuli: syllabic, non-syllabic and syllabic-synthetic sequences. These were presented to infants who were less than 2 months old in an habituation-dishabituation paradigm. Results indicate that the syllable-like stimuli are discriminated better than the non-syllable-like stimuli even though the physical change from the habituation to the dishabituation stimuli was always the same. We interpret our results as favoring a view according to which the syllable is the natural unit of speech segmentation and processing.
160 citations
TL;DR: Infants exposed to contingent singing first learned to space sucking bursts, but infants having previous noncontingent experience did not learn to do so, and a contingency view of operant learning is supported.
Abstract: One group of four infants could produce vocal music only by appropriately spacing bursts of nonnutritive sucking. Within 24 hours the same singing was presented independent of sucking. A second group of four infants encountered a reverse order of conditions: noncontingent singing occurred first, followed by response-contingent presentation. Infants exposed to contingent singing first learned to space sucking bursts, but infants having previous noncontingent experience did not learn to do so. Moreover, noncontingent singing was upsetting to infants having prior contingent experience, but was not upsetting when it occurred first. This pattern of results was predicted by, and thus supports, a contingency view of operant learning. Contingency theories may be more useful than the traditional contiguity view for understanding newborn behavior.
147 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the mother's activity level was varied by instructing her to interact naturally (moderate activity), to remain still-faced (low activity) or to keep her infant's attention (high activity), and the interactions were then analyzed for amount of maternal activity, infant gaze aversion and for tonic heart rate during each of the interactions.
Abstract: Infant gaze aversion and heart rate were measured during the interactions of 4-month-old infants and their mothers. The mother's activity level was varied by instructing her to interact naturally (moderate activity), to remain still-faced (low activity) or to keep her infant's attention (high activity). The interactions were then analyzed for amount of maternal activity, infant gaze aversion and for tonic heart rate during each of the interactions, and the temporal relationship between isolated episodes of gaze aversion and corresponding heart rate was assessed during the “natural” interactions. Infant gaze aversion was greater and tonic heart rate was elevated during the low and high activity interactions. Heart rate accelerations occurred prior to the onset of gaze aversion and heart rate decelerations occurred during the gaze aversion periods.
140 citations
TL;DR: In two experiments, infants were-presented with varying auditory stimuli contingent upon their fixation to identical but separate visual targets, and differential responses were found in total fixation time to targets on the basis of the auditory stimulus associated with them.
Abstract: In two experiments, infants were-presented with varying auditory stimuli contingent upon their fixation to identical but separate visual targets. Differential responses were found in total fixation time to targets on the basis of the auditory stimulus associated with them. This method for assessment of auditory selectivity can be used with infqnts as young as four months of age.
88 citations
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that mothers and fathers responded to the unfamiliar infant's cries and to the tones with heart rate decelerations, whereas only mothers were able to identify the type of cry accurately.
Abstract: Sixteen mothers and sixteen fathers of four- to six-month-old infants listened to the sounds of their own, and an unfamiliar female infant's anger and pain cries, and two tones, as their autonomic responses were monitored. In a second series of stimulus presentations, subjects rated their own subjective feelings with respect to unpleasantness, tension-provocation and novelty of each of the six tapes. For the four infant cry segments, subjects were asked to identify the infant (own or other baby) and the kind of cry expression heard. Mothers reacted to the tapes of their own infant's cries with a brief cardiac deceleration followed by a secondary acceleration, whereas the fathers responded to their own infant's cries with decelerations. Both mothers and fathers responded to the unfamiliar infant's cries and to the tones with heart rate decelerations. The own infant's pain cry was associated with the largest electrodermal response in both parent groups, and mothers rated this cry as the most unpleasant and tension-provoking of the sounds. Mothers and fathers were highly accurate in recognizing their child's cries, but only mothers were able to identify the type of cry accurately. The results are discussed in terms of orienting and defensive response patterns and the differential caregiving experiences of mothers and fathers.
84 citations
TL;DR: Fussing and crying is highly consistent from one and three to nine months, although mother behavior may contribute to this consistency, and mother behavior at nine months is associated with both early infant and mother characteristics.
Abstract: This study investigated the stability of infant irritability, motor activity, and sociability from the newborn period through the first nine months of life, and the relationship between mother and infant behavior over the same time period. Sixteen infants were assessed neonatally and the mother-infant pairs were observed in their homes at one, three, and nine months. The results identify mother and infant antecedents of nine-month infant behavior. Motor activity is most clearly related to newborn characteristics and least influenced by mother behavior. Fussing and crying is highly consistent from one and three to nine months, although mother behavior may contribute to this consistency. Sociability is related positively to maternal contact and responsiveness. Mother behavior at nine months is associated with both early infant and mother characteristics.
68 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, individual stability over a nine month period in infancy in six factor analytically derived behavioral dimensions was assessed in a group of 322 infants, studied twice at the mean age of 4 and 13 months.
Abstract: Individual stability over a nine month period in infancy in six factor analytically derived behavioral dimensions was assessed in a group of 322 infants, studied twice at the mean age of 4 and 13 months. Test-retest and internal consistency estimates of the reliability of the parental questionnaire scales used for measuring the dimensions were found to be satisfactory. Analyses of variance showed significant age changes in all dimensions; differences between subgroups of infants, defined by sex, parity, and maturity at birth, were few and pertained mostly to the comparison between first- and later-born-infants. Stability, as expressed by significant correlation coefficients, was found for all six dimensions. The varying degrees of stability in the different behavioral categories were discussed from various methodological and theoretical standpoints.
48 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors delineate dimensions of functioning in infant behavior by using factor analytic procedures, including Intensity/Activity, Regularity, Approach-Withdrawal, Sensory Sensitivity, Attentiveness, Manageability, and Sensitivity to New Food.
Abstract: The purpose of the study was to delineate dimensions of functioning in infant behavior by using factor analytic procedures. Data about the behavior of infants in two age groups were obtained, using a questionnaire answered by parents. Separate analyses and cross-validation procedures were performed on data from the younger (11–25 weeks; N=381) and older (26–41 weeks; N=410) sample. For both samples, factors interpretable as broad behavioral dimensions were obtained. The preferred solutions for the two age groups were compared and judged to be similar enough to warrant a combination of the two samples. The preferred solution for the combined sample was an orthogonal 7-factor solution accounting for about a third of the total variance. The seven factors were named Intensity/Activity, Regularity, Approach-Withdrawal, Sensory Sensitivity, Attentiveness, Manageability, and Sensitivity to New Food. Questions concerning the nature and significance of these dimensions were raised.
45 citations
TL;DR: In this article, three-month-old infants were trained to produce movement in an overhead crib mobile by footkicking in a standard mobile conjugate reinforcement paradigm, and 13 days following the conclusion of training, when forgetting was complete, infants received a direct reactivation treatment consisting of a brief noncontingent exposure to the reinforcer.
Abstract: Three-month-old infants were trained to produce movement in an overhead crib mobile by footkicking in a standard mobile conjugate reinforcement paradigm. Thirteen days following the conclusion of training, when forgetting was complete, infants received a direct reactivation treatment consisting of a brief noncontingent exposure to the reinforcer. Not only did the reactivation treatment arrest forgetting and restore conditioned responding of infants tested as long as 3 days after the reminder, but also the forgetting function of the reactivated memory, which was obtained from independent groups tested 1, 3, 6, 9 and 15 days after the reactivation treatment, had the same form and slope as the forgetting function of the newly acquired memory. These data confirm the efficacy of a reactivation treatment in alleviating forgetting, and demonstrate the relatively broad time span over which a single, brief reminder can facilitate retrieval in very young infants.
35 citations
TL;DR: The results showed that the infants exposed to the four conditions that included a rocking component quieted more quickly than those either picked up and held at the experimenter's shoulder or not given any form of soothing intervention as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Thirty-six distressed infants 24–72 hrs of age (M = 45.25 hrs) were exposed to one of five experimental consoling conditions or one no-intervention control condition. The results showed that the infants exposed to the four conditions that included a rocking component quieted more quickly than those either picked up and held at the experimenter's shoulder or not given any form of soothing intervention. Furthermore, the results indicated that the type of rocking movement (continuous vs. intermittent) differentially affected the infant's behavioral state and that these effects were influenced, to some degree, by the direction of the movement. The results are discussed in terms of their applicability to the facilitation of a positive caregiver-infant relationship and in relation to strategies for state-dependent infant research and testing.
TL;DR: In this article, two computer simulation models were constructed to test for possible artifacts in group habituation data, and they were compared to actual data from 250 infants ranging from 14 to 30 weeks of age who had been habituated to a color photograph of a face.
Abstract: In order to test for possible artifacts in group habituation data, two computer simulation models were constructed. One assumed habituation was an all-or-none-process; the other assumed it was an exponentially decreasing process. These models were compared to actual data from 250 infants ranging from 14 to 30 weeks of age who had been habituated to a color photograph of a face. Both models produced good qualitative fits with the data. However, traditional methods of assessing habituation (i.e., forward, backward or Vincentized curves) did not differentiate between the models. Several artifacts in these curves obscured any differences. In particular, the peak just prior to criterion and the drop found in backward curves was shown to be totally artifactual. The conclusion was that one should be cautious about inferring specific encoding processes in infants from group habituation curves.
TL;DR: Results suggest that, at a group level of analysis, a deviation from average fetal growth in either direction on the distribution of neonatal anthropometry is associated with similar changes in the behavioral functioning of infants in the normal newborn nursery.
Abstract: This report describes behavioral dimensions and spectrographic cry features of underweight-, average weight- and overweight-for-length newborn infants. Analyzed for this study were the four a priori dimensions of the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS), a dimension of the mean modal scores of the orientation items from the NBAS, and the highest dominant frequency of the cries occurring during the administration of the NBAS. Results indicate that both underweight-for-length and overweight-for-length infants showed less optimal performances on all dimensions of the NBAS than average weight-for-length infants, and also showed a high-pitched cry sound which has been used to indicate an impaired functioning of the central nervous system. No differences were found on any of these measures between the underweight- and overweight-for-length infants. These results suggest that, at a group level of analysis, a deviation from average fetal growth in either direction on the distribution of neonatal anthropometry is associated with similar changes in the behavioral functioning of infants in the normal newborn nursery. This differential behavioral functioning may be manifested in the daily activity of the infants and may alter the functional relationship between the infant and environment.
TL;DR: Toddler-peer social interaction was similar in the two environments, and the naturally occurring behaviors of forty toddlers and their peers were time sampled in day care settings.
Abstract: Peer social behaviors and interaction were observed in day care centers and family day care homes. The naturally occurring behaviors of forty toddlers and their peers were time sampled in day care settings. Day care facilities were community based and varied in group size, age composition, and the number and type of play objects. Toddler-peer social interaction was similar in the two environments.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that infants of both genders smile significantly longer at upright faces than those presented sideways, and longer at females than at males, when presented with talking, smiling individual faces of their mothers, their fathers, and an unfamiliar male and female adult.
Abstract: In the first experiment, 32 infants, aged 14 and 20 weeks, watched 8 30-second color videotapes of the talking, smiling individual faces of their mother, their father and of an unfamiliar male and female adult on a monitor which was upright for half the presentations and rotated 90° for the other half. Infants of both ages smiled significantly longer at upright faces than those presented sideways, and longer at females than at males. In the second experiment, 24 10- and 14-week-olds watched 6 videotapes of their mother and of a female stranger, in which one presentation of each individual was upright and accompanied by sound, one was upright and silent, and the third was oriented at 90° and accompanied by sound. The 10-week-olds did not differentiate among the stimuli, but 14-week-olds smiled significantly longer a) at their mother than the stranger, and b) at upright talking faces than at 90° or silent faces.
TL;DR: Single trial analysis of infant evoked potentials provides an opportunity to assess trial-to-trial variation in the brain's responses to rapidly changing events.
Abstract: When an infrequent or unexpected stimulus is presented to the adult, a characteristic enhancement of the late positive component (LPC) of the averaged evoked cortical potential is observed. To test whether this effect obtains near birth, we presented low and high probability visual stimuli to 29 3-month-old infants in two studies. In Study 1, electrical potentials were recorded from occipital and parietal scalp sites (Oz and Opz), and in Study 2 also from a frontal lead (Fz). A clear LPC effect was observed over the posterior regions between 300-600 msec following the onset of the infrequent stimulus. This is the first demonstration of an LPC effect in infants, reflecting cognitive processing involving memory. A linear discriminant analysis was used to analyze the nature of the LPC effect on single trials. A local probability index (LPI) was calculated to examine the effects of prior presentations of familiar events on the infants' responses to specific occurrences of unfamiliar events. The LPC occurred more frequently for those unfamiliar trials preceded by a sequence of three or more familiar stimuli than by only one or two. Thus, single trial analysis of infant evoked potentials provides an opportunity to assess trial-to-trial variation in the brain's responses to rapidly changing events.
TL;DR: Mothers proved to have unique skills in dealing with infant cries, in comparison with both experienced and inexperienced non-mothers.
Abstract: In the very few studies examining adults' ability to recognize the different types of infants' cries, it has usually been concluded that experience is the prime factor which facilitates identification of the various types of cry. The present study explored the specific skill of the mother, irrespective of experience. Thirty six-mothers and 32 non-mothers were asked to identify hunger, pain and pleasure cries of infants. The non-mothers were pregnant women, 14 experienced in child care, 18 inexperienced; among the mothers, 17 had one infant and 29 had one infant and an older child. Mothers responded more accurately than non-mothers, and in comparison with both experienced and inexperienced non-mothers, they proved to have unique skills in dealing with infant cries.
TL;DR: In this article, infants were presented with a series of invisible displacement hiding trials at a first location (A) and subsequently at a second location (B). Infants had to choose among five salient alternative search locations on each trial.
Abstract: Twelve- to 14-month-old infants were presented with a series of invisible displacement hiding trials at a first location (A) and, subsequently, at a second location (B). Infants had to choose among five salient alternative search locations on each trial. Contrary to Piaget's Stage V task predictions, infants did not make the “A, not B” search error. That is, infants seldom searched at A during B-hiding trials. Instead, beginning with the first hiding trial at B (and at A), search responses tended to cluster at or near the correct hiding location. The results are interpreted in terms of a memory hypothesis which suggests that infants are generally able to encode, store, and retrieve at least some information concerning the current spatial location of objects during invisible displacements.
TL;DR: A pattern of adult permissiveness allied with insensitivity and physical restriction resulting in agonistic behavior in infants characterizes the socialization process in East Timor and distinguishes it from that in the Papua New Guinea sample as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A pattern of adult permissiveness allied with insensitivity and physical restriction resulting in agonistic behavior in infants characterizes the socialization process in East Timor and distinguishes it from that in the Papua New Guinea sample. Here, adult permissiveness combines with awareness of infant responses and positive encouragement of infant physical independence. Irritation and aggression is absent among the New Guinean babies. In spite of differing circumstances, both infant groups detach themselves without anxiety. Behavioral analysis of films of twelve East Timorese and twelve Papua New Guinean subjects from the age of one to 15 months, and their caregivers, revealed some similarities and a complex of clear differences between the two groups. The similarities suggest features of socialization which further comparison may show to be universal. The differences can be labelled cultural and are possibly related to ecological variables.
TL;DR: This article investigated whether infants are capable of discriminating not only differences in pitch and syllable-initial consonants but also the manner in which these components are combined, using a modification of the high-amplitude sucking procedure.
Abstract: In this study, we investigated whether infants are capable of discriminating not only differences in pitch and syllable-initial consonants but also the manner in which these components are combined. Using a modification of the high-amplitude sucking procedure, we found that three- and four-month-old infants were able to recognize rearrangements of these components, which, together with earlier findings, indicates that the infant's speech processing system is sensitive to the organization in the basic elements of human language.
TL;DR: Three samples of newborns were measured on tactile sensitivity and two indices of muscle strength, with boys showing greater strength than girls, and chubbiness and weight were negatively related to tactile sensitivity for boys in one of the three samples.
Abstract: Three samples of newborns were measured on tactile sensitivity (using an aesthesiometer) and two indices of muscle strength (prone head reaction and grip strength). There was no sex difference found in tactile sensitivity. When the probabilities of all three samples were combined, sex differences were found in prone head reaction and grip strength, with boys showing greater strength than girls. Chubbiness and weight were negatively related to tactile sensitivity for boys in one of the three samples. Weight did not account for the sex differences in strength.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the validity of a recently postulated four-stage model involving systematic changes in the organization of sensorimotor intelligence and found that first components at 14 and 18 months replicated those obtained in previous studies.
Abstract: This study examined the validity of a recently postulated four-stage model involving systematic changes in the organization of sensorimotor intelligence. Twenty-five infants at each of three ages, 14, 18 and 22 months, were administered the Piaget-based Infant Psychological Development Scale. Scores were factor analyzed yielding first components at each age corresponding to the latter three stages of the proposed model. First components at 14 and 18 months replicated those obtained in previous studies.
TL;DR: Wemer and Wooten as mentioned in this paper reviewed the literature in infant color vision with aims to criticize early studies of infant color perception, review modem studies on spectral sensitivity and tests of chromatic discrimination, assess the idea that "infants and adults perceive hue categorically," and evaluate contemporary knowledge about the development of color vision in infancy.
Abstract: Wemer and Wooten (1979a) review the literature in infant color vision with aims to (1) criticize early studies of infant color perception, (2) review modem studies on spectral sensitivity and tests of chromatic discrimination, (3) assess the idea that "infants and adults perceive hue categorically," and (4) evaluate contemporary knowledge about the development of color vision in infancy. The purposes of this paper are to (I) provide a comprehensive assessment of Werner and Wooten's review, (2) re-evaluate major conclusions of their review, and (3) rectify unwarranted criticism that their review levels against several experiments, particularly my own.
TL;DR: The results showed that whereas the shape of the central feature is perceived and later recognized when moving at 4°/sec or when stationary, this was not so at 10°/ sec, even though efficient tracking occurred at this speed.
Abstract: The ability of infants between 8 and 20 weeks to perceive and later recognize two features of laterally moving patterns has been investigated in five experiments. Recovery of the probability of continuing to fixate the moving or stationary patterns served throughout as an index of the perception and recognition of the shape of a prominent central feature and the color of its surround. The results showed that whereas the shape of the central feature is perceived at 4°/sec and later recognized when moving at 4°/sec or when stationary, this was not so at 10°/sec, even though efficient tracking occurred at this speed. The color of the surround appeared not to be simultaneously perceived or recognized. Contrary to earlier reports, the results of the five experiments indicate that at least the rudiments of identity constancy are present between 8 and 20 weeks of age.
TL;DR: In this article, infants' ability to fixate (capture) a moving stimulus, and their ability to maintain fixation of the stimulus (pursue) once it was captured, was investigated with infants of 11 and 17 weeks.
Abstract: Visual tracking by infants of 11 and 17 weeks was investigated with 4°/sec and 10°/sec laterally-moving stimuli Two aspects of tracking were measured, infants' ability to fixate (capture) a moving stimulus, and their ability to maintain fixation of the stimulus (pursue) once it was captured Generally, infants' ability to capture the moving stimulus was found to improve significantly with age, irrespective of the speed of the stimulus However, ability to pursue the stimulus was significantly better at 10°/sec than 4°/sec, irrespective of the infants' age Results bearing on the extent of the effective visual field were also obtained It is suggested that the ability to capture moving objects undergoes gradual development from birth to some time after 17 weeks, whereas much of the development of visual pursuit occurs before 11 weeks It is also suggested that infants' pursuit of moving stimuli becomes more automatic with increasing stimulus speed
TL;DR: The results are presented in the context of no previous report of sex differences in neonates' auditory responsiveness and an existing data base indicating that female children and adults are more responsive than males to auditory stimulation.
Abstract: Six response measures were used to evaluate the responsiveness of nine not-yet circumcised males and nine female neonates to pure tone stimuli. The females were quicker to respond than the males. On the initial trials the females responded with more or bigger responses. The females also tended to be more responsive to the auditory stimulation as indicated by the duration of their responsiveness to repeated stimulation and by their activity level. The results are presented in the context of no previous report of sex differences in neonates' auditory responsiveness and an existing data base indicating that female children and adults are more responsive than males to auditory stimulation.
TL;DR: Lower capillary pH was found to be associated with a more rapid buildup to the initial cry, more frequent crying, and a higher peak state of excitement during the behavioral assessment, but these findings could not be attributed to any association between the newborn's state during blood sampling and eitherCapillary pH or crying during the subsequent assessment.
Abstract: The relationship between blood pH and newborn crying has been examined in an attempt to identify the basis of the association between intrapartum asphyxia and greater crying. It was hypothesized that the newborn who cries more would have a depressed blood pH (i.e., would be acidemic) compared to the newborn who cries relatively little. Thirty infants aged 24 hours were examined with the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale 15 to 20 minutes after a specimen of capillary blood had been obtained for determination of pH. Lower capillary pH was found to be associated with a more rapid buildup to the initial cry, more frequent crying, and a higher peak state of excitement during the behavioral assessment. These findings could not be attributed to any association between the newborn's state during blood sampling and either capillary pH or crying during the subsequent assessment.
TL;DR: Schuberth and Gratch as discussed by the authors pointed out that a sample of eight infants is too small to allow for an adequate test, and the use of small samples must always be viewed with caution, and it is a particular concern in object permanence research.
Abstract: Several aspects of Schuberth and Gratch's (1981) reply to Cummings and Bjork (1981) require comment. First, while we appreciate Schuberth and Gratch's desire to examine the replicability of our findings, a sample of eight infants is too small to allow for an adequate test. The use of small samples must always be viewed with caution, and it is a particular concern in object permanence research because of the considerable individual variation in task performance, even among infants who are the same age. Second, Schuberth and Gratch overstate the differences between the findings of the two studies. After presenting their results, Schuberth and Gratch assert that their findings are "grossly different" from ours. However, an examination of the data reveals that the findings of the two studies are similar on every trial but one. In fact, Schuberth and Gratch make this point themselves during the course of presenting their results. Therefore, their description of the results of the two studies as "grossly different" is misleading. Third, our position with regard to the frequency of the AB error seems to have been misunderstood. It is not our contention that searches at the A location during B hiding trials can only be produced as an artifact of a two-choice procedure. Instead, our claim is that the A location does not have a unique hold on
TL;DR: In alert and crying newborns, cardiac responses to rocking differed according to the type of motor reaction observed, and the need to examine both cardiac and behavioral responses when assessing complex transactions between the organism and its environment.
Abstract: Cardiac and behavioral reactions of human neonates to rocking stimulation were examined as a function of observed state. Each infant received 20 trials of vestibulo-kinesthetic stimulation provided by a motorized cradle. Cardiac acceleration with enhancement, lessening or no change in motor activity was observed in sleeping babies. In alert and crying newborns, cardiac responses to rocking differed according to the type of motor reaction observed. Cardiac acceleration was concomitant with motor activation, while cardiac deceleration was concomitant with motor quieting at stimulus onset. When changes in motor activity were not observed, there were no consistent changes in cardiac responses. These findings emphasize the need to examine both cardiac and behavioral responses when assessing complex transactions between the organism and its environment. Such complex transactions are evident even in the immature human newborn. Descriptors: Neonates, Heart rate, Motor activity, State, Rocking.