Showing papers in "Instructional Science in 1981"

Phenomenography — Describing conceptions of the world around us

Abstract: Arguments are put forward in this paper in favour of research which has as its aim the finding and systematizing of forms of thought in terms of which people interpret significant aspects of reality. The kind of research argued for is complementary to other kinds of research; it aims at description, analysis and understanding of experiences. The relatively distinct field of inquiry indicated by such an orientation is labelled phenomenography. A fundamental distinction is made between two perspectives. From the first-order perspective we aim at describing various aspects of the world and from the second-order perspective (for which a case is made in this paper) we aim at describing people's experience of various aspects of the world. Research in a variety of disciplines, sub-disciplines and “schools of thought” has provided us with experiential descriptions, that is, content-oriented and interpretative descriptions of the qualitatively different ways in which people perceive and understand their reality. It has, however, seldom been recognized that these various research efforts share a common perspective in their view of phenomena and a unifying scientific identity has in consequence not been attained. The focussing on the apprehended (experienced, conceptualized,) content as a point of departure for carrying out research and as a basis for integrating the findings is seen as the most distinctive feature of the domain indicated. Conceptions and ways of understanding are not seen as individual qualities. Conceptions of reality are considered rather as categories of description to be used in facilitating the grasp of concrete cases of human functioning. Since the same categories of description appear in different situations, the set of categories is thus stable and generalizable between the situations even if individuals move from one category to another on different occasions. The totality of such categories of description denotes a kind of collective intellect, an evolutionary tool in continual development.

Teacher influence in the classroom: A context for understanding curriculum translation

Abstract: Innovative doctrines create dilemmas for teachers. These dilemmas arise because, when teachers decide to adopt new practices, they face new uncertainties about their role in the classroom, the effectiveness of their methods and the purposes of their instruction. The way teachers used the materials of a particular innovation, the Schools Council Integrated Science Project, is described and explained in terms of teacher control over the uncertainties of classroom life. The Project proposals, initially seen by teachers as increasing the diffuseness of their work, were modified by them so that it was clearer to them what was to be accomplished and how it was to be done. At the same time, a functional alignment of goals, techniques and social relationships was maintained through teacher influence in the classroom. The translation of the materials into more specific terms meant that important elements of the “doctrine” of the Project were either ignored or redefined in more traditional terms. Such redefinition of innovation in specific terms raises questions about the effectiveness, as instruments of change, of centralized curriculum projects remote from the practical problems of schools. Implications for curriculum policy and research into the dilemmas teachers face in teaching are discussed.

Frequency norms and structural analysis of algebra story problems into families, categories, and templates

Abstract: The goal of this study was to develop a framework for classifying algebra story problems and to determine observed frequencies for each problem type. A total of 1097 algebra story problems were selected from ten standard algebra textbooks. These are divided into eight families based on the nature of the source formula involved; for example, nearly 300 problems were classified in the “time rate family” because they were based on the source formula, “distance = rate x time” or “output = rate x time.” Each family was divided into problem categories based on the general form of the story line; for example, the time rate family consisted of “motion,” “current,” and “work” categories. Each category was divided into templates based on the specific propositional structure of the problem; for example, there were a dozen templates for motion problems such as “overtake,” “closure,” “round trip,” etc. This article describes the procedure for generating families, categories, and templates and provides frequency counts for each observed template. Implications for fostering productive research and instruction are discussed.

Learning approach and outcome: some empirical observations

Abstract: Various kinds of empirical investigations have shown that differences in learning strategies or approaches exist. In the present study it is argued that in many such studies, in spite of the disparities in the theoretical and methodological frameworks employed, the differences between strategies are often described in rather similar terms. What emerges from such research is quite often a distinction between a memorizing, reproductive strategy or approach on the one hand and on the other a strategy which is characterized as implying a focussing on comprehending main ideas and principles and, in general, on a more organizing and reflective attitude towards the learning material. The results of the empirical study reported here indicate: (a) that a similar distinction exists in every-day thinking about learning, and (b) that whether a person, according to his own spontaneous description, uses one or the other of these two approaches appears to have interesting consequences for the outcome. The main consequence of differences in approach may however perhaps not be found in how much people learn in a quantitative sense, but rather in what kind of information is focussed on and learned. It is argued that a more descriptively orientated psychology of learning is urgently needed, i.e. a kind of research which attempts to reveal what learning in real life is like and which furthermore in a more sensitive way tries to reveal the consequences of differences in strategy or approach for the outcome of learning.

Linking factual and procedural knowledge in solving science problems: A case study in a thermodynamics course

Abstract: Well-specified problems of the type presented boxed in the introduction to this article are extremely common in science courses. Unfortunately, this does not mean that students find them easy to solve, even when a teacher provides model answers to problems which differ only marginally (in the teacher's eyes) from those put before the students. The central difficulty with such courses is that they do not embody instructional principles that reflect students' need for “direction” in problem solving. In this article, we describe how the necessary heuristics and strategic knowledge were built into the remake of a conventional thermodynamics course. In contrast to mainstream American work on learning problem solving we chose to direct our curriculum reconstruction using the Gal'perin theory of stage-by-stage formation of mental actions and Landa's description of the “through” systematization of knowledge. As indicated by both, we first developed an integrated system of instructional objectives: a programme of actions and methods (PAM) to solve problems in thermodynamics. Then the plan of instruction was designed. This plan indicates which instructional procedures and materials should be used to realize the instructional functions, derived from the learning theory. The evaluation design contained two control and three experimental courses. In discussing our main findings, we consider the generalizability of the procedures we followed in constructing the PAM and the instructional plan.

How Teachers Design Their Materials: Implications for Instructional Design.

Abstract: Research on teacher thinking and teacher planning conducted over the past few years suggests that teachers rarely proceed in a “systematic” fashion when planning or carrying out instruction. What happens when teachers become designers of instructional materials? In a series of studies of teachers and novice instructional designers, data were collected on: the form taken by initial ideas for materials; elements involved in initial thinking; constraints perceived; the train of the design process; and reflections on the design after completing it. Results showed that prescriptive models of how instructional design should proceed frequently do not match the reality of instructional design in practice. Several changes in instructional design procedures might take these differences into account: designers might engage in “synectics” sessions, for example, rather than focusing immediately on objectives. And incompleteness in a design appears to have particular fascination for instructors. Finally, the studies point out the need for more careful and comprehensive treatments of what “design” is, and of why some are more successful at it than others.

Work models: Beyond instructional objectives

Abstract: While instructional objectives have provided a cornerstone for the practice and science of instruction, they have also locked us into a lexically based conceptual system. In order to realize the interactive potential of computer-based instructional systems, we need a new way of representing performance. This paper presents the concept of a work model which is a unit of practice which allows replication of both information and interaction. In addition, the work model idea also addresses some of the fundamental problems with objectives such as their inability to capture the richness of terminal behavior or how to relate objectives to content.

Elaboration theory and cognitive psychology

Abstract: Increasingly, instructional literature is pointing out the need for theories of instruction which are consistent with emerging cognitive psychology Theory construction of this sort entails taking into account developing notions of the learner as a processor of information rather than a respondent to stimuli The purpose of this article is to describe a recent instructional effort, referred to as the Elaboration Theory of Instruction (ETI), and chart its correspondence with several major principles drawn from contemporary cognitive psychology The ETI incorporates models for both the sequencing and structuring of subject matter The article will show how these components relate to current models of knowledge representation, schema theory, memory processes such as storage and retrieval, and earlier cognitive based instructional frameworks

An essay on error

Abstract: In recent years, researchers have started to take an increasing interest in errors that can frustrate teaching and training and learning. These enquiries have, however, tended to be of a special-purpose kind in the sense that they have focused on particular learning domains such as language learning, mathematics learning, and the acquisition of perceptual-motor skills. What is lacking is a more global approach to the problem of error or even, for that matter, a recognition that a global approach might be both possible and informative. This article tries to rectify this gap in the theoretical literature by indicating, in a comparatively discursive and non-rigorous way, the form that such an overall theory of error might take.

Problem-Based (Group) Teaching: A Cognitive Science Approach to Using Available Knowledge.

Abstract: An important objective in education generally, and tertiary education in particular, is the imparting of the ability to use acquired knowledge when solving problems. Both within tertiary education itself and in society, however, the complaint is frequently heard that it is precisely in this respect that the training of students is deficient. An alternative to conventional methods of teaching how to apply knowledge is to use explicitly problem-based teaching. Using a theoretical perspective derived from both an action-oriented and an information-processing perspective, it is shown that the problem-based approach has more potential. Maximizing this potential requires cognizance of the various types of problem-based approach, whose variants depend on the problem, the extent of pre-structuring and the roles assigned to individuals in a group. Also important is the systemic position of problem-based teaching in a curriculum.

A macroscopic model of instruction and purposive learning: An overview

Abstract: This is a brief description of a model for purposeful learning and instruction. The learner is viewed as a resource-limited system that has to transform instructional information in order to be successful. The expected success of teaching depends on six factors. Two factors determine the likelihood of encountering relevant instructional information. These are: the number of redundant instructive events (I) and attendance to instruction and compliance with assignments (A-C). Three factors interact reciprocally to determine the likelihood of achieving the desired competence once the relevant instructional information has been encountered. These are: the straightforward relevance of instructive information (D), the learner's instruction-relevant experience (E) and disposition for appropriate mathemagenic process (m). Finally (R), properties of the material and of the situation, determine whether students will remember what they have learned. The instructional model, although based on relatively microscopic psychological theories, can be applied at progressively more macroscopic levels of analysis by increasing the size of instructional units, using more approximate measures and focusing on the success of larger groups of students.

The role of task analysis in understanding problem-solving behavior

Abstract: We report the beginning of a research program for understanding cognitive processes required for applying financial accounting knowledge to specific problem solving situations. Task analysis which is a thorough and systematic dissection and description of the cognitive components of any task is demonstrated as a useful technique for identifying the relevant cognitive processes. After carefully describing the cognitive components of accounting using task analysis one may then specify what parts of this description are relevant to the immediate behavioral objective. These cognitive descriptions can then be used to design instructional materials or teaching strategies.

The effectiveness of man-machine tutorial dialogues for teaching attribute blocks problem-solving skills with an Artificial Intelligence CAI System

Abstract: Two prominent design features of an Artificial Intelligence CAI (AI CAI) System for teaching problem-solving skills were experimentally evaluated. Seventy-six subjects were randomly assigned to four treatment groups formed by factorially combining two values each of two system design variables. The variables were the ability/lack of ability of the system to answer specific student generated questions regarding the current problem state, and the inclusion/exclusion of computer generated tutorial dialogues aimed at correcting student misprocessing of information during the solution of the problem. Analysis of the data indicated that students receiving computer generated instructional dialogues performed significantly more poorly on a transfer task than students not receiving such tutorial dialogues. The variable of student initiated questioning and the interaction of the two variables yielded non-significant results. Goal-directed production systems are reported to formally model task performance and instructional decision-making activities. The usefulness of these formal modeling techniques to instructional system design and evaluation is illustrated in a detailed analysis of the system's performance. Implications for future instructional system design techniques using the AI CAI approach are discussed.

Through a glass darkly: a naturalistic study of students' understanding of mathematical word problems*

Abstract: A father is now 20 years older than his son. In 8 years, the father's age will be 5 years more than twice the son's age. Find their present age.

Artificial intelligence and learning: Conference reports

Abstract: Excerpts from the 1980 AISB workshop on Intelligent Teaching Systems at Leeds University, the 1981 AISB conference on Production Systems at Sheffield University, and the 1981 conference on Computer Assisted Learning at Leeds University.

The role of memory aids in two instructional paradigms: Learning and utilization of logical rules

Abstract: One hundred and thirty-two 10th graders performed either a conjunetive or biconditional rule task in one of six conditions defined by a 2 (tasks: attribute-identification versus rule-learning) by 3 (memory aids: 0 versus 3 versus 6) factorial design Learners' attribute-identification was facilitated when six memory aids were made available, especially given the biconditional rule, but not when three aids were available This effect was attributed to the facilitative role of six memory aids in the process of eliminating irrelevant dimensions The acquisition of the biconditional rule was a linear function of the number of memory aids; but that of the conjunctive rule was not differentially affected by the memory aids This interaction was attributed to the facilitative role of memory aids in the formation of a relatively complex one, not in the identification of a familiar, easy one