Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Social Psychology in 1974"
TL;DR: In this paper, a laboratory experiment was conducted in which groups of Ss performed simple and complex tasks for one hour in three conditions of crowding: (1) noncrowded, (2) crowded, (3) crowded with perceived control.
Abstract: A laboratory experiment was conducted in which groups of Ss performed simple and complex tasks for one hour in three conditions of crowding: (1) noncrowded, (2) crowded, (3) crowded-with-perceived-control. Immediately afterward, all groups worked in a noncrowded situation on two additional tasks, one involving frustration tolerance and the other involving quality of proofreading performance. Conditions of crowding had no effect on simple or complex task performance. In the postcrowding situation, however, significant negative behavioral aftereffects were observed for the crowded groups on the frustration tolerance measure, though perceived control ameliorated these aftereffects. There were no significant aftereffects on the prooofreading measure.
172 citations
TL;DR: The degree and basis of social power of uniformed figures was investigated in two field experiments as mentioned in this paper, where subjects were asked to pick up a paper bag or to give a dime to a stranger, or to move away from a bus stop.
Abstract: The degree and basis of social power of uniformed figures was investigated in two field experiments. In the first experiment, subjects were stopped in the street by an experimenter dressed in one of three ways: a civilian, a milkman, or a guard. They were asked to pick up a paper bag, or to give a dime to a stranger, or to move away from a bus stop. The results indicated that the subjects complied more with the guard than with the civilian or milkman. In the second field experiment, designed to examine the basis of the guard's power, subjects were asked to give a dime to a stranger under conditions of either surveillance or nonsurveillance. The guard's power was not affected by the surveillance manipulation. A logical analysis of social power indicated that the guard's power was most likely based on legitimacy. Two questionnaire studies indicated, however, that college students did not perceive the guard as having either more. power or more legitimacy than the milkman or civilian. The nature and importance of understanding legitimacy was discussed.
171 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of adversary and non-adversary procedures, prior belief about guilt, and favorableness of the judgment on participant subjects' perceptions of the adjudication were examined.
Abstract: An important aspect of conflict resolution by judgment of a third party is the extent to which participants and observers are satisfied that both the procedure and the outcome are fair and impartial. Male undergaduates participated in a business simulation, which resulted in a controversy placing them in the position of defendants in a trial. An examination was then made of the effects of adversary and nonadversary procedures, prior belief about guilt, and favorableness of the judgment on participant subjects’ perceptions of the adjudication. Another group of subjects who had no prior information about the guilt or innocence of the defendent served as observers. Participant subjects viewed the adversary procedure as most fair and satisfying. They were also most satisfied with judgments resulting from the adversary procedure, independently of pretrial belief or favorableness of verdict. Participants also preferred innocent to guilty verdicts, regardless of their pretrial belief. Subjects who held a pretrial belief of innocence were particularly dissatisfied with guilty verdicts and with the nonadversary trial procedure. Observers also found the adversary procedure to be most fair, and expressed a preference for innocent verdicts.
148 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the dependence of persuasion on cognitive factors and found that subjects could have derived their opinions from their cognitions about the case, and that this relationship also held up over time.
Abstract: Four experiments investigated the dependence of persuasion on cognitive factors. All experiments employed a court case for which 795 subjects acted as jury members, reading summaries of both the prosecution and defense's testimony. The amount of objective information on both sides of the case was varied. Persuasion was a position function of the number of prosecution arguments and the number of defense arguments. This finding was extended by obtaining measures of the subjects’cognitive reactions to the case as well as their opinions and by following both of these measures over time. Both analysis of variance and multiple regression techniques showed that subjects could have derived their opinions from their cognitions about the case. This relationship also held up over time. These results suggest the general form of an information-processing theory of persuasion. One prediction of this theory is for an asymptotic function relating objective information to persuasion. This prediction received empirical support.
134 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, two experiments were conducted to examine behavioral consequences of a sense of time urgency, which presumably characterizes individuals classified as manifesting a so-called "Type A" coronary-prone behavior pattern.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to examine behavioral consequences of a sense of time urgency, which presumably characterizes individuals classified as manifesting a so-called “Type A” coronary-prone behavior pattern. Experiment I indicated that time-urgent Type A Ss were reliably less successful than noncoronary-prone “Type Bs” in performing a task requiring a low rate of response for reinforcement (DRL). Type As were not only unable to delay their responses; they also showed greater evidence of tension and hyperactivity than Type Bs during DRL performance. Experiment II extended these results to the interpersonal domain. Time-urgent Ss became more impatient and irritated than less urgent Ss when both types were systematically slowed down in their efforts to reach a solution on a joint decision-making task. The results were discussed in terms of a conceptualization of the A-B dimension as reflecting differential expectations of and needs for environmental control. Additional evidence was presented in support of this approach. Consideration was also given to possible physiologic mechanisms mediating the relationship between psychological variables such as the Type A pattern and actual occurrence of coronary heart disease.
115 citations
TL;DR: A psychological theory which suggests that a person's attitude toward any object is a function of his beliefs about the object and the evaluative aspects of those beliefs is presented in this paper.
Abstract: A psychological theory which suggests that a person's attitude toward any object is a function of his beliefs about the object and the evaluative aspects of those beliefs is presented. Thus, in the political arena, a person should like or dislike a given candidate because (a) he believes the candidate has certain personal characteristics, is affiliated with certain reference groups, or is for or against various issues; and (b) evaluated these characteristics, groups, and issues positively or negatively. Evidence from a local survey in the 1964 presidential election supports this theory and its application to voting behavior. In addition, the data clearly indicate that voters do take partisan stands on some issues, do clearly discriminate between the candidates vis-a-vis certain issues, and do change their beliefs during the course of a campaign. These data suggest that a new protrait of the American voter is overdue.
113 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the bargaining behavior of 80 pairs of female undergraduates on a competitive reward allocation task was examined, where participants either bargained for themselves or represented the interests of a constituent as well as themselves.
Abstract: The bargaining behavior of 80 pairs of female undergraduates on a competitive reward-allocation task was examined. The participants either bargained for themselves or represented the interests of a constituent as well as themselves. Representatives were given information indicating that their constituent expected them to win or to behave cooperatively, or they were given no information concerning their constituent's bargaining orientation. Consistent with previous research, the present findings indicated that representational role obligations tend to increase competition between negotiators. However, the findings also revealed, that this tendency is reduced when pressure to cooperate is applied by constituents to at least one of the representatives. Procedures that aid in the resolution of intergroup conflict were discussed.
72 citations
TL;DR: This article explored the effect of similarity-dissimilarity between the donor and the recipient on the recipient's self-perception and his perception of the donor, and found that a donor of aid was more favorably rated than a nondonor.
Abstract: This study explored the effect of similarity-dissimilarity between the donor and the recipient on the recipient's self-perception and his perception of the donor. A 2 x 2 between-subjects design was employed in which aid versus no aid and similarity versus dissimilarity were the experimental factors. The results indicate that receiving aid from a similar other had a negative effect on the recipient's situational self-esteem and self-confidence, while aid from a dissimilar other had a positive effect on situational self-esteem and self-confidence. Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) was suggested as a means of explaining this finding. In addition, it was found that a donor of aid was more favorably rated than a nondonor.
62 citations
TL;DR: In a 3 × 3 factorial experiment with 3 additional cells, 329 male or female subjects working with two same-sex confederates (A and B), received either voluntary, involuntary, or no help from A after which attraction to A and B were measured for one-fourth of the subjects.
Abstract: In a 3 × 3 factorial experiment with 3 additional cells, 329 male or female subjects working with two same-sex confederates (A and B), received either voluntary, involuntary, or no help from A after which attraction to A and B were measured for one-fourth of the subjects The remaining subjects were assigned to a second set of tasks and were induced to help A, help B, or were not given an opportunity to help, after which they completed attraction and mood measures Subjects were more likely to volunteer help after the second task when they had received prior help Receipt of help led to more liking for the helper and the helper was liked more when subjects were able to reciprocate Attraction and mood results are discussed in relation to attractiveness mediation, modeling, and indebtedness explanations for reciprocity
53 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that more help was obtained in the offer condition and that subjects liked the helper more when help was offered than when it was requested, while the normativeness and incentive variables did not produce the expected effects.
Abstract: Subjects could receive assistance on a difficult logic problem either by requesting help or by accepting an offer of aid from a helper. Normativeness of help seeking and presence of an incentive for correct completion of the task were also varied. Results of the study indicated that more help was obtained in the offer condition and that subjects liked the helper more when help was offered than when it was requested. The normativeness and incentive variables did not produce the expected effects. Negative consequences of requesting help were interpreted in terms of attribution theory, and the implications of these findings for help-delivery systems were discussed.
45 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined both white and black subjects' nonverbal behavior and also independently varied the race of the person with whom the subject interacted, finding that white subjects tended to maintain more visual interaction with interviewers of both races than did black subjects.
Abstract: The majority of systematic research on nonverbal behavior has used white college students as subjects. The present investigation examined both white and black subjects’nonverbal behavior and also independently varied the race of the person with whom the subject interacted. The experimental setting was an actual employment interview. Twenty black and 20 white female undergraduates were individually interviewed by either a black or white male interviewer. White subjects tended to maintain more visual interaction with interviewers of both races than did black subjects. Moreover, black interviewers were visually interacted with less, and given shorter glances. Racial, in contrast to nonracial, questions elicited longer glances; and subjects hesitated longer before answering them.
TL;DR: A field experiment was conducted in which a single male, a single female, or a male-female couple attempted to hitch rides at four different traffic locations, under conditions in which the hitchhikers either stared at or looked away from oncoming drivers as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted in which a single male, a single female, or a male-female couple attempted to hitch rides at four different traffic locations, under conditions in which the hitchhikers either stared at or looked away from oncoming drivers. It was found that staring increased the probability of a driver stopping from .03 to .067 (z = 2.96, p = .003). The female was a more successful hitchhiker than either the male or the couple, (z = 2.215, p = .026; z = 1.861, p .063, respectively).
TL;DR: To examine the effects of masculine participation in occupations typically performed by women, 200 subjects rated the prestige and desirability of five occupations following information that proportions of male practitioners would increase or remain constant.
Abstract: To examine the effects of masculine participation in occupations typically performed by women, 200 subjects rated the prestige and desirability of five occupations following information that proportions of male practitioners would increase or remain constant Findings showed that increased participation by men increased the prestige and desirability of all occupations. Ratings on 12 bipolar adjective scales from the semantic differential showed that increases in prestige and desirability were accompanied by attributions of increased activity, security, usefulness, success, and wealth to occupations admitting additional men.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors found that recipients of aid from an ally donor perceived the donor to be more positively motivated and perceived the aid to reflect greater effort and to be of greater value than recipients of an equal amount of assistance from an enemy donor.
Abstract: Subjects participating as decision-makers in the Tactical and Negotiations Game experimental simulation encountered a programed emergency and then received an offer of aid from either an ally or an enemy donor. Findings indicate that recipients of aid from an ally donor perceived the donor to be more positively motivated and perceived the aid to reflect greater effort and to be of greater value than recipients of an equal amount of aid from an enemy donor. In addition, aid from an ally precipitated a positive shift in recipient perceptions of the donor and a negative shift in recipient perceptions of the enemy nondonor, while aid from an enemy had essentially no effects. The applied implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: One hundred and forty college students, in either (a) 2-minute time-limit or (b) a no-time-limit condition, voted their conscience on actual pending legislation in their state in a test of hypothesis that such time limits in the voting booth created a stimulus overload situation.
Abstract: One hundred and forty college students, in either (a) 2-minute time-limit or (b) a no-time-limit condition, voted their conscience on actual pending legislation in their state in a test of hypothesis that such time limits in the voting booth created a stimulus overload situation. Such a situation was expected to result in dysfunctional adaptation responses, with unintended effects on voting patterns. Results indicated that subjects in the time stress condition voted significantly more conservatively on these issues. This conservative shift is interpreted as a function of overload, with serious political implications for urban planners, whose response to increasing population density often has been to increase the tempo by which citizens are processed through the cities’institutional and social services.
TL;DR: In this article, two possibilities that might reduce resentment of the donor following the receipt of aid which cannot be repaid were investigated: (a) the cost to the donor is minimized, and (b) the recipient has an opportunity to aid a third party.
Abstract: Drawing on equity theory, two possibilities that might reduce resentment of the donor following the receipt of aid which cannot be repaid were investigated: (a) the cost to the donor is minimized, and (b) the recipient has an opportunity to aid a third party. The results provide evidence that the recipient will like the donor less and be less willing to request future aid when he cannot repay the aid than when he can. Weak support was received by the hypothesis that the tendency to like the donor less when the aid cannot be repaid will be stronger, the greater the perceived cost. Support was found for the hypothesis that the decreased willingness to request future aid when the aid cannot be repaid will be stronger, the greater the perceived cost. Support was found for the hypotheses that the recipient will like the donor more and be more willing to request future aid when he has an opportunity to aid a third party than when he cannot aid anyone.
TL;DR: In this article, college students were given the task of making an object from balloons while being observed by someone who they were told had highly similar values (similar conditions) or highly dissimilar values (dissimilar conditions).
Abstract: College students were given the task of making an object from balloons while being observed by someone who they were told had highly similar values (similar conditions) or highly dissimilar values (dissimilar conditions) Later they were to observe while the other made an object from wire coat hangers that were already unwound (no opportunity to repay conditions) or were not unwound (opportunity to repay conditions) In preparation for the subject's task, the balloons had to be blown up and the other offered to help The number of balloons the subject gave the other was the measure of acceptance of help An interaction between similarity and opportunity to repay was found As hypothesized, acceptance of help was greater when the potential helper was similar than when he was dissimilar only when the opportunity to repay was anticipated; when no opportunity to repay was expected, the reverse was found
TL;DR: This paper investigated evaluations of experimenters as a function of their sex and competency and found that competent females were perceived as less feminine than incompetent females, whereas incompetent females perceived as more feminine than females in any other experimenter condition.
Abstract: A study was conducted to investigate evaluations of experimenters as a function of their sex and competency. It was hypothesized that (a) competent male and female experimenters would be evaluated as equal in competence, but that females acting incompetently would be judged as less competent than would males who were also acting incompetently and (b) competent females would be judged as less feminine relative to incompetent females; whereas incompetent females would be judged as extremely feminine. Undergraduate males and females viewed videotapes of male or female experimenters acting either competently or incompetently and then rated these experimenters on a 20-item semantic differential scale. It was found that when the female experimenters unambiguously displayed competence, they were judged as of equal competence to male experimenters acting in a similar manner; in the incompetent condition, however, female experimenters were judged as less competent than male experimenters. Competent females were perceived as less feminine than incompetent females; incompetent females were perceived as more feminine than females in any other experimenter condition. It was postulated that these findings were due to (a) subjects’expecting incompetency of women and (b) subjects’equating competence with the masculine role and incompetence with the feminine role.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of a helper's physical attractiveness and role on help-seeking behavior were investigated, and it was found that participants were reluctant to ask the attractive confederate for help when she was in the non-role condition, while most in this condition asked for information instead of assistance.
Abstract: The effects of a helper's physical attractiveness and role on help-seeking behavior were investigated here. Eighty randomly selected Smith College students were the subjects; the helpers were two confederates selected on the basis of a separately conducted photograph evaluation. The confederate was designated either as an experimenter (Role condition) or as a fellow subject (Nonrole condition). Subjects were reluctant to ask the attractive confederate for help when she was in the Nonrole condition; rather, most in this condition asked for information instead of assistance. When the confederate was unattractive, more subjects asked for help when she was in role than when she was not. Although there was a significant main effect, most of this effect appears to be accounted for by the low rate of seeking help in the Attractive, nonrole condition. Subjects took longer to communicate with the attractive confederate than with the unattractive one; further, they reported feeling more uncomfortable in the presence of the attractive helper regardless of role.
TL;DR: This article found that when rewards exceed what is felt to be equitable, the recipient may increase his perception of task difficulty and his estimate of what is a fair return for his efforts, and that there should be little need to devote increased energy to task performance.
Abstract: Although early studies support the equity theory prediction that increasing rewards for task performance enhance the effort devoted to the task, these findings may be challenged on a number of counts. Social exchange theory suggests, for example, that when rewards exceed what is felt to be equitable, the recipient may increase his perception of task difficulty and his estimate of what is a fair return for his efforts. In this case, there should be little need to devote increased energy to task performance. The present study, conducted in both Italy and the United States, supports this reasoning. Compared with equitably rewarded subjects, those rewarded by either 40% or 80% over their estimate of what was fair, altered both their perceptions of task difficulty and of a fair return. No performance differences were found.
TL;DR: In this paper, a tutoring situation, a sixth-grade tutor taught a concept-formation task to a third-grade tutee, and over the series of trials, performance of the tutoring session was controlled to create differential patterns of success and failure on the task: success-success, failure-failure, success failure, and failure success.
Abstract: In a single-session tutoring situation, a sixth-grade tutor taught a concept-formation task to a third-grade tutee. Over the series of trials, performance of the tutee was controlled to create differential patterns of success and failure on the task: success-success, failure-failure, success-failure, and failure-success. Results showed that sequence of performance exerted a strong impact on the tutor's attributions of ability and affective responses concerning the tutee. The tutee's initial performance had greater impact on the tutor's reactions than later performance, indicating a strong primacy effect. Differential performance by the tutee did not affect the tutor's evaluation of his own teaching ability.
TL;DR: A study was conducted in 1971 among 386 students at the University of Illinois to determine the social factors influencing desired family size and favorability toward birth control among young people as discussed by the authors, and it was found that role and attitudinal predictors correlated highly with the number of children respondents desired to have biologically.
Abstract: A study was conducted in 1971 among 386 (250 males and 136 females) students at the University of Illinois to determine the social factors influencing desired family size and favorability toward birth control among young people. It was found that role and attitudinal predictors correlated highly with the number of children respondents desired to have biologically. Individuals who were pro-sex role equivalence pro-womens liberation proliberalism and anticonservatism wanted fewer children. The level of statistical significance for the correlation was p less than .01. These attitudes were more significant in determining desired family size than social factors such as number of siblings religion rural-urban background and social class. For women respondents the attitudinal factors had more effect on favorability toward birth control than on desired family size. Males desired more children biologically and females desired more adoptive children. The data indicate that procreative goal limitation is associated with general nontraditional attitudes.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the models of female achievement available to television viewers and found that female achievers portrayed on television are depicted in a way that does not encourage female viewers to imitate their behavior and in fact serves to inhibit achievement-oriented behavior in female viewers.
Abstract: Two studies examined the models of female achievement available to television viewers. The studies surveyed television's portrayal of both achievement behavior and its social consequences for the female achiever. Study I compared female models at four levels of achievement. Only those models at the lowest level of achievement were depicted as having successful social relations with males. Study II compared the marital status of male and female job holders. Compared with male job holders, females were depicted as less likely to be married, less likely to be successfully married, and more likely to be unsuccessfully married. Data on married females showed that those who held jobs were depicted as having 10 times as many unsuccessful marriages (proportionately) as housewives. It is suggested that female achievers portrayed on television are depicted in a way that does not encourage female viewers to imitate their behavior and in fact serves to inhibit achievement-oriented behavior in female viewers.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined factors that influence the severity of discipline administered to a subordinate information gatekeeper who is guilty of covering up an event and concealing and distorting information, and found that mild discipline was recommended when the superior was highly dependent on his subordinate and when the subordinate acted out of altruism for his superior.
Abstract: This study examines factors that influence the severity of discipline administered to a subordinate information gatekeeper who is guilty of covering up an event and concealing and distorting information. Undergraduate business students read one of eight versions of a case depicting faulty upward communication, in which three variables-the superior-subordinate dependency relationship, the subordinate's motivation, and the subordinate's remorse-were manipulated. Unethicality of the offense was evaluated to be quite high across all experimental conditions, yet mild discipline was recommended when the superior was highly dependent on his subordinate and when the subordinate acted out of altruism for his superior. Probability of reoccurrence of the infraction was judged lowest when the offending subordinate displayed remorse. These findings are interpreted as representing a pragmatic orientation toward discipline based on perceived costs or benefits to the administrator. Conditions that increase the vulnerability of decision-makers to faulty upward communication are discussed.
TL;DR: A study was conducted concerning racial attitudes of a group of white, Roman Catholic residents of a large midwestern city interviewed before and after they heard two sermons opposing racial injustice and segregation as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A study was conducted concerning racial attitudes of a group of white, Roman Catholic residents of a large midwestern city interviewed before and after they heard two sermons opposing raeial injustice and segregation. There was no significant relationship between presermon and postsermon change in a parishioner's attitude toward racial integration and the prointegration intensity of the sermons he heard. However, variation in the prointegration intensity of sermons delivered in a parish was closely related to the socioeconomic status of the parishioners, suggesting that the priests’perception of parish norms may have influenced the contents of the sermons.
The needs or functions that segregationist attitudes may serve were considered. The 3 strongest of 14 correlates of segregationist attitudes investigated in this study were (a) belief that racial integration leads to neighborhood deterioration, (b) authoritarian aggression, and (c) perception of neighbors’attitudes toward integration. These three correlates appear to reflect object appraisal needs, externalization of inner conflict needs, and social adjustment needs, respectively.
TL;DR: This paper found that the attitudinal ratings of the occupations were affected by individual differences in locus-of-control orientation, with externally oriented people rating more of the members of the occupation more unfavorably than ones with internal orientations.
Abstract: A sample of workers rated the members of 20 selected occupations in terms of their perceived competence, altruism, truthfulness, and power. A comparison sample of college students rated these occupations on the same dimensions and on status. The results generally supported Rotter and Stein's argument that members of the general public have stable beliefs concerning the characteristics of members of different occupations, but not their contention that members of the more powerful occupations are seen more negatively than members of less powerful positions. The data also indicated that the attitudinal ratings of the occupations were affected by individual differences in locus-of-control orientation, with externally oriented people rating more of the members of the occupations more unfavorably than ones with internal orientations.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effectiveness of matching the conceptual structure of participants in educational training and psychotherapy experiences has been demonstrated in previous research, and an attempt to test the effectiveness was made in a school desegregation workshop designed to promote a mandatory bussing proposal by a local school board.
Abstract: The effectiveness of matching the conceptual structure of participants in educational training and psychotherapy experiences has been demonstrated in previous research. This paper describes an attempt to test the effectiveness of this model in a school desegregation workshop designed to promote a mandatory bussing proposal by a local school board. Differentiation matching had little effect on participants' global judgments of satisfaction with workshop goals but was significantly and inversely related to the decision to voluntarily bus a child, especially among blacks. Abstractness of topics discussed affected participant endorsement of workshop goals but did not affect bussing decision. The findings suggest that how such workshops are organized is dependent on whether the workshop success is to be evaluated on the basis of community public relations or actual decisions to bus children.
TL;DR: The authors found that white and black boys did not differ in their preference for self-paced and reactive sports activities, regardless of their own racial identity and had several younger siblings and attended schools with a sizeable representation of white students.
Abstract: This study provided support for Worthy and Markle's thesis that whites excel at self-paced and blacks at reactive sports activities, by assessing the performance of 55 white and 122 black fourth-grade boys playing a modified soccer game. The research also explored the relationships between several dimensions of socialization (e.g., father presence-absence) and relative performance on the self-paced-reactive dimension. Two significant correlations emerged: Regardless of their own racial identity, boys who excelled at the self-paced activity tended to have several younger siblings and to attend schools with a sizeable representation of white students. Subsequent interviews revealed that black and white boys did not differ in their preference for self-paced and reactive sports activities.