Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Sport Psychology in 1999"

An integrative analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport.

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to propose a motivational sequence that integrates much of the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation literature in sport The proposed motivational sequence: “Social Factors → Psychological Mediators → Types of Motivation → Consequences” is in line with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan 1985 1991) and the Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997) Using the sequence, it is first shown that the motivational impact of social factors inherent in sport, such as competition/cooperation, success/failure, and coaches' behaviors toward athletes, takes place through their influence on athletes' perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (ie, the psychological mediators) Second, recent results are provided with respect to a new multidimensional measure (ie, the Sport Motivation Scale; Pelletier et al, 1995) to assess the different types of athletes' motives Third, we review findings that suggest that such sport motives lead

The exercise motivation scale: Its multifaceted structure and construct validity

Abstract: Building upon Deci and Ryan's (1985, 1991) self-determination theory as well as previous empirical work on motivation, this paper presents studies on the development and validation of a multifaceted 31-item Exercise Motivation Scale (EMS). Evidence for the factorial validity of the EMS was sought for eight facets of the exercise motivation construct (amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, integrated regulation, intrinsic motivation to learn, intrinsic motivation to accomplish tasks, and intrinsic motivation to experience sensations). Results from various analyses showed adequate evidence for the a priori hypothesized EMS factorial structure, acceptable subscale reliability estimates, and nomological validity. Findings provided initial empirical support for the applicability of self-determination theory in the context of exercise, and indicate the need for a multifaceted approach to the conceptualization of exercise motivation.

The influence of self-talk on the performance of skilled female tennis players

Abstract: This paper reports on the development and implementation of a self-talk (ST) strategy designed to improve the volleying skill of collegiate tennis players (N = 5). A two-word ST strategy was developed, implemented, and evaluated using a single-case, multiple-baseline design. Dependent measures were movement patterns and outcome scores. After intervention, four players displayed immediate, positive changes with no overlapping datapoints on movement patterns. Notable improvements in outcome scores were also observed in all players, however, overlapping datapoints occurred for three players. Visual inspection of plotted values was supplemented by quantitative analysis using one-way ANOVAs to analyze four datapoints: the two baseline days just prior to intervention, and the two days immediately post intervention. Significant differences were found between phases, with both movement pattern and outcome scores higher following intervention. Qualitative data were collected via surveys and interviews. Pl...

Exercise imagery: Its nature and measurement

Abstract: The lack of research on imagery use by exercisers and the success of imagery use by athletes—for both motivational and cognitive functions—highlights the need to examine imagery use by exercisers. Thus, the general purpose of the present research was to (a) examine the nature of exercise imagery and (b) develop a questionnaire to assess exercise imagery. To this end three research phases were undertaken. Phase 1 examined the nature of imagery use by exercisers and Phases 2 and 3 involved the development and psychometric analysis of the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire-Aerobic Version (EIQ-AV). Results of Phase 1 revealed that 75.7% of the exercisers (N = 144) reported using exercise imagery for both motivational (e.g., goal attainment and psychological management) and cognitive (e.g., performance enhancement and learning) purposes. In Phases 2 and 3, the psychometric analysis of the EIQ-AV revealed three factors (i.e., Energy, Appearance, and Technique) with adequate internal consistency estimates....

The effect of task structure, perceived motivational climate and goal orientations on students' task involvement and anxiety

Abstract: This study examined the effect of task structure, perceived motivational climate, and goal orientations on students' task involvement and anxiety in the physical education lesson. Two hundred thirty-nine junior high school students participated in a physical education lesson comprised of four task-involving tasks and in a physical education lesson consisting of three ego-involving tasks. After the completion of each task the students responded on a questionnaire measuring concentration, autotelic experience, and loss of self-consciousness. In the last part of the lessons the students completed instruments assessing anxiety and perceived motivational climate. In the lesson comprised of task-involving tasks the students had higher state self-confidence, lower somatic anxiety, and perceived a higher task-involving and a lower ego-involving climate than in the lesson consisting of the ego-involving tasks. In both lessons, task orientation and the perception of a task-involving climate were positive p...

The changes in psychological characteristics and reactions of elite athletes from injury onset until full recovery

Abstract: The purpose of this investigation was to describe the psychological characteristics and reactions of injured athletes and to examine the changes in these reactions throughout their rehabilitation. This study examined 136 elite injured athletes from 25 sports at four phases: upon injury, partial recovery, semi-recovery, and full recovery. Injury appraisal, athlete's demographics, and emotional and psychological variables were measured. Duration of injuries ranged from 4 to 99 weeks (M = 19 weeks). Changes were examined through a series of repeated measure MAN-OVAs with polynomial contrasts. Findings were typically as expected: increased confidence and vigor and decreased negative emotional responses over the recovery period. The changes over the recovery period were not always at a constant rate. Confidence of adhering to rehabilitation, passive, and emotion-focused coping, remained stable over time. The initial injury appraisal, regarding anticipated loss of time and the psychological impact of t...

The effect of multiple-goal strategies on performance outcomes in training and competition

Abstract: Many sport psychologists have been fighting against the pervasive “winning is everything” mentality and have encouraged athletes to set only self-referenced performance and process goals. However, studies that have explored the practices of successful performers have found that they do in fact make effective use of outcome goals (Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993; Jones & Hanton, 1996). The aim of this study was to examine empirically Hardy, Jones, and Gould's (1996) suggestion, that consultants should now be promoting the use of a multiple-goal strategy. Forty participants were split into five groups of equal number and matched for ability on a soccer task. Four of the groups used different combinations of outcome, performance, and process goals while the other acted as a control group. Performance on the soccer task was measured over a 5-week training period, and then in a competition. Two-factor (Group X Test) ANOVA's indicated significant differences (p < .05) between the groups for...

Effects of feedback on self-efficacy, performance, and choice in an athletic task.

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of feedback on self-efficacy, performance, and task choice, and the mediating effects of self-efficacy in the feedback-performance and task choice relationships. Participants were 69 Spanish students, 46 males and 23 females, between 18 and 24 years. The experimental paradigm consisted of three sessions. In the first, participants performed on the hurdles. In the second, manipulated feedback referring to the previous performance was provided. Participants then estimated their self-efficacy for a second task which they later performed. In the third session, participants were presented with three tasks involving clearing hurdles of progressive difficulty. They were then asked to elect and perform whichever task they felt capable of completing. Three different models were advanced for the relationships between feedback, self-efficacy, performance, and task choice. Structural equation modeling (SEM) confirmed a model where performance feedback was si...

The home advantage from an individual team perspective

Abstract: Previous research on the home advantage has focused on the home winning percentage of entire leagues as the outcome of interest. The purpose of the present paper was to examine the home versus away records of individual teams in order to more fully describe team performance outcomes in relation to game location. Archival data from 20 seasons (1974–1993) of professional ice hockey were utilized. Over the total 20-year period, a home-game winning average of 52% was present within the league. However, when the records of individual teams were examined, teams were found to have won 17.3% (p < .001) more games at home than away. Furthermore, the magnitude of the home/away winning percentage differential was consistent across teams regardless of team quality. A small percentage of teams were also found to have a home disadvantage in their regular season play. It was suggested that future research efforts to explain the home advantage should examine game location from the perspective of individual teams...

Coaching preferences of adolescent youths and their parents

Abstract: This study compared preferred coaching styles of children and their parents using the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980). The LSS preferred form was revised and then administered to children ranging from 10 to 18 years of age who competed in summer youth sport leagues and to one parent within each family unit (n = 239). A doubly multivariate repeated measure MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate difference for adolescent athletes and their parents on the five subscales of the LSS. Discriminant function and univariate analyses indicated that male and female children and their parents differed on autocratic and democratic behavior and children had a significantly higher score on democratic behavior and social support than did their parents. Parents, coaches, and researchers in youth sports could use the revised LSS to determine children-athletes’ preferences for coaching styles and for developing more effective programs.

A Survey of Mental Skills Training Knowledge, Opinions, and Practices of Junior Tennis Coaches

Abstract: Junior tennis coaches (N = 153) were surveyed to determine their opinions about the importance of mental skills training, the specific mental skills they teach, strategies they use to teach mental skills, and recommendations for making mental skills training more effective. Mental skills thought to be most difficult to teach included reframing pressure, crisis management, self-confidence, and emotional control. Roadblocks to mental skills training included a lack of time, a lack of player interest, difficulty evaluating mental skills training success, and a lack of models or examples of coaches actually teaching mental skills. Coaches also indicated a need for practical mental skills training exercises that could be taught in 10–15 minutes, strategies for better engaging players in mental skills training, and the need for mental skills training videos to use with players. Differences in the coaches' opinions were compared between more and less experienced and sport psychology trained and untraine...

A personal development model of sport psychology for athletes with disabilities

Abstract: Achieving superior sport performance is often the result of well developed psychological skills (Morris & Thomas, 1995). However, little is known about psychological skill development in athletes with disabilities (Hanrahan, 1998). The purpose of the present paper is to help sport psychologists in their work with athletes with physical disabilities. Although there are many similarities among athletes with and without disabilities, sport psychologists would benefit from an awareness of information unique to athletes with disabilities (Asken, 1991). I use a broad interpretation of psychological skills based on a holistic perspective and a personal development model (Vealey, 1988). Information is presented in the three areas of foundation, psychological, and facilitative skills, methods, and factors.

Controlling competitive anger among male soccer players

Abstract: This study examined the effectiveness of anger awareness training (i.e., self-monitoring) and role-playing (i.e., modeling and behavioral rehearsal) in reducing participants’ angry behavior and angry feelings. Male participants (N = 57) from intact soccer teams were randomly assigned to a role-playing, an anger awareness, or a control group. Pretreatment anger scores indicated that all three groups exhibited similar anger dispositions before the study began. Following pretreatment assessment, angry behavior and self-reported anger were observed and measured during a 15-game round-robin soccer season. Analyses revealed that although angry feelings remained consistent across the duration of the study, the role-playing group was more effective than both the anger awareness and control groups in controlling angry behavior. Findings indicate that although the use of anger awareness and role-playing interventions can reduce angry behavior, the role-playing intervention was a more effective method.

Critical issues confronting the advancement of applied sport psychology

Abstract: Despite considerable progress over the last 10 years, applied sport psychology confronts several persistent issues that continue to limit the growth and development of the field. Specifically, issues requiring more comprehensive and proactive attention and initiatives include: the training of graduate students, the accreditation of graduate programs, the job market, and the establishment of systematic educational outreach programs. Suggestions are offered regarding how enhancements in each of the aforementioned issues can be initiated, and potential benefits gained by students, faculty, and the general public are identified and discussed. Given the climate in many academic institutions emphasizing program downsizing, sport psychology may be approaching and confronting one of the most crucial crossroads in its existence. Without direct efforts to assure academic credibility and public confidence in the standards of training and practice, sport psychology may fail to actualize a meaningful future r...

Primary process in competitive archery performance: Effects of flotation REST

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether or nor the floating form of Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique (REST) may be exploited within the field of competitive archery to reinforce primary process (inner-directed) orientation and thereby enhance the quality of coaching and training. Floatation REST consists of a procedure whereby an individual is immersed in a water-tank filled with saltwater of an extremely high salt concentration. The experiment was performed over the course of two weekends with a 6-week interval. Twenty participating archers, 13 male and 7 female, were recruited. The between-group factor was “adjudged skill.” The within-group factor was provided by an Armchair condition in which the participants sat in an armchair for 45 min after which they were required to shoot four salvo series of three shots each, as a comparison to the Flotation-Rest condition whereby the participants were required to lie in a floating-tank for 45 min just prior to shooting...

Positive illusions in golf: Empirical and conceptual analyses

Abstract: The apparent prevalence and impact of cognitive biases (e.g., positive illusions) during planning by golfers was examined in two studies. In Study I, club selections used by 171 golfers (133 men, 38 women; M Handicap = 20.8, SD = 8.6) for initial tee shots were compared with club selections used when golfers were offered a second ball to hit following a conservative (and realistic) plan for shot selection. Second shots, following the conservative plan, were vastly superior to those observed when golfers used their initial plans. In addition, comparison of club selections for the conservative plan to club selections used for the initial plan suggested that approximately 80% of the golfers may have used poor planning for their initial tee shots. In Study II, 184 golfers (155 men, 29 women, M Handicap = 22.4, SD = 8.1) were randomly assigned to use their own planning strategy (Control group) or to follow a realistic and conservative plan (Experimental group). In accord with hypotheses based on Study...

Gymnasts in training: The differential effects of self-and coach-set goals as a function of locus of control

Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between goal-setting strategies and locus of control on on-task behavior. Four female Level 8 and 9 gymnasts were selected to participate, two with an internal, and two an external locus of control. Using a within-subjects, alternating treatment design, subjects were exposed to both self-and coach-set goal conditions. Results revealed a differential effect; subjects with a more internal locus of control spent relatively more time on-task under the self-set goal condition while those with a more external locus of control spent more time on-task when the coach set their goals. Implications for the theoretical understanding of goal setting processes as well as more applied considerations for coaching practice are considered.

The 1997 coleman roberts griffith address movement expertise: A juncture between psychology theory and practice

Abstract: Two of the major distinguishing characteristics of the pioneering work of Coleman R. Griffith were his theory-practice integration through applied research and his eclectic focus not just on cognitive and emotional aspects of the psychology of sport. but also on elements related to perception, decision-making and movement control, and learning. The first part of this paper discusses the implications of these two attributes to broad issues for sport psychology related to the fragmentation-integration of knowledge, to defining the scope of the field, and to the nature of the relationship with other fields of knowledge, especially motor control and learning. The second part of the paper illustrates some of these issues through an overview of applied research on the enhancement of the perceptual skills of athletes. A critique of current understanding of the nature of perceptual skill in sport is first provided, using expert-novice comparisons as a means of uncovering the essential distinguishing attr...

Putting the accreditation cart before the aaasp horse: A reply to silva, conroy and zizzi

Abstract: While Silva et al. (1999) must be congratulated for leading a discussion of accreditation of graduate programs in applied sport psychology, the authors appear to have “put the cart before the horse.” They have adopted an extreme one-sided position that suggests that accreditation of programs is the only viable solution for some of the training and employment problems that currently exist in the applied sport psychology profession. This response questions some of their assumptions and conclusions and offers several alternative solutions to these problems in a more balanced analysis of the current situation. It is hoped that these articles will stimulate further discussion at AAASP meetings and among practicing professionals.