Showing papers in "Journal of Communication in 1968"

The dimensions of source credibility of television newscasters.

Abstract: The author asked 596 undergraduate students to view kinescopes of three “off the air” local newscasts and evaluate each of the newscasters on a fifty-five item semantic differential instrument. None of the subjects were familiar with either the newscasters or the content of the messages. The three newscasters varied a great deal in their “styles” of news delivery. The resulting 1, 782 instruments were factor analyzed separately and pooled. By inspection, there were no significant differences in factor structure or loadings among the three newscasts. The pooled factor analysis identified the three major dimensions of source credibility as a reliable-logical or validity of the message factor; a showmanship, dynamism, or entertainment factor; and a trustworthiness dimension. As sub-factors accounting for a portion of the residue after extracting the first three factors, the author identifies a morality, bodily skill, data evaluation, speed, and extroversion dimension. These sub-factors are probably unique to the newscasting communication situation.

A Model of the Teaching‐Learning Process for Assisting Development of Children's Thinking During Communication

Abstract: This theoretical discussion presents the base for a series of experimental studies designed to develop thinking processes in elementary school children in communication skills. The theoretical model was based originally in major part on a synthesis of concepts from Hilgard's Theories of Learning and Instruction. Central to the model is the statement from Gagne that learning contributes to intellectual development because it is cumulative in its effects. That is, students learn a developmental sequence of increasingly complex and interacting structures of learned capabilities. The major divisions of the model are labeled cognitive readiness, reinforcement, and transfer. Clusters of hypothesized concepts numbering 16 in total are described in progressive cumulative and dependent relationship. Empirical testing under way appears to give some support to the web of relationships in the classificatory scheme. A total sample of 683 fifth-grade pupils completing all 9 experimental measures has contributed data for an analysis of gross subcapabilities related to improvement of problem-solving skills. The teaching-learning strategy for the experiment was based on the above model. A curriculum of over 100 lessons was constructed in accordance with the theoretical model and with an emphasis on either: reinforcement of a central problem-solving program, or subcapabilities of listening, or sub-capabilities of qualitative levels of thinking—all supposedly contributing to improved problem-solving skills. As the concepts for the model are presented, illustrative pupil and teacher verbalization (actual) is given for clarification.

Listening comprehension as a function of word rate.

Abstract: Twelve comparable groups of Ss heard a listening selection that differed, from group to group, with respect to word rate. Word rate was varied, in increments of 25 wpm (words per minute), from 125 to 400 wpm, by means of the sampling method for compressing or expanding recorded speech. After listening to the selection, Ss were tested for comprehension by a multiple choice test. Comprehension was not seriously affected by increasing word rate from 125 to 250 wpm, but it declined rapidly thereafter. The suggested explanation of these results is that time is required for the perception of words, and that as word rate is increased beyond a certain point, the perception time available to the listener becomes inadequate, and a rapid deterioration of listening comprehension commences.

The Dynamics of Space: An Experimental Study in Proxemic Behavior among Latin Americans and North Americans

Abstract: Thirty-two Ss were matched with persons of their own cultural group (Latin American or North American) and were asked to attempt to solve a problem concerning the Middle East crisis within five minutes. Their proxemic behavior was noted and photographed, while they discussed the problem. Although there were no significant mean differences, variance differences were significant and suggest possible explanations for the lack of significant mean differences. There seems to be a relationship between sitting position and distance, and there may well be a relationship between distance and a number of other variables like social context, degree of intimacy among Ss, or ego involvement. The relationship between room size and distance between Ss remains unclear.

Comprehension of a narrative passage by elementary school children as a function of listening rate, retention period, and IQ.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate differences in comprehension among elementary school children who listened to a narrative passage presented at different rates of expansion or compression, ranging from 78 words per minute (in increments of 50 words per minute) to 428 words per minute One hundred sixty-two elementary school children from three levels of intelligence comprised the samples All subjects had mental ages falling in the 9–4 to 11–3 range The materials used in this study were three standardized listening passages and associated tests The first two passages were used for training and familiarization purposes; the third passage was used for obtaining criterion data Multiple choice tests covering the passage contents were used Two alternate forms of a 28-item test were used with the criterion passage Immediate and one-week retention data were gathered on each subject Results of the study indicate that listening rates of 228 to 328 wpm are more efficient for learning and retention than the normal rate of 178 wpm Subjects with lower IQs performed better at rates which were slower than the most efficient rates for higher IQ subjects It was further observed that the performance curves obtained in this study display a secondary peak just prior to the final drop in performance at very high listening rates This study provides evidence that high-speed listening can be an efficient learning medium for elementary school children

Some Relationships of Mental Aptitude, Reading Ability, and Listening Ability Using Normal and Time-Compressed Speech

Abstract: Three studies tested the differences between reading and listening ability, and performance on comprehension and intelligibility tests using time-compressed speech, for men of high, average, and low mental aptitudes. The results indicated that there were no differences in reading or listening performance for men of either average or low mental aptitude. The former scored better than the latter on all tests of reading and listening comprehension, regardless of the difficulty level of the material, or whether normal or time-compressed listening materials were used. The performance of all aptitude groups declined when the speech rate of the listening material was increased, but there were no interactions of speech rate and mental aptitude. On the intelligibility tests, lower aptitude Ss did not discriminate individually presented time-compressed words as well as did the higher aptitude Ss. Some implications of these results for education and training are presented.

Output, Error, Equivocation, and Recalled Information in Auditory, Visual, and Audiovisual Information Processing with Constraint and Noise

Abstract: Past controversies over the relative effectiveness of auditory, visual, and audiovisual channels are seen as the results of nondifferentiation of error and equivocation. Seventh grade students were used as Ss in an experiment consisting of noise and no noise conditions with constrained and nonconstrained communication in A, V, and AV treatments. Data were examined in terms of output, error, equivocation, and recalled (shared) information based upon information theory. The superiority of the AV treatment was substantiated in all respects of information processing, making less error and equivocation, but recalling more information correctly as compared with the A or V channel. Comparisons between A and V unequivocally established the fact that V made less error but more equivocation, whereas A processed more output information and also made more error; however, there was no significant difference between them in recalled information. The dependence of A upon constraint was found to be far greater than that of AV whose dependence in turn was greater than that of V. Noise was found to affect A most, V the next most, and AV the least. With between-channel redundancy AV seemed to be capable of reducing the effect of noise.

A Study of Recall and Retention of Accelerated Lecture Presentation

Abstract: Subjects were 118 students in Human Behavior and Development classes at State University College at Buffalo. Two lectures, which represented part of the course content, were recorded by the Ss’regular professor. Ss were divided into three groups. Lecture number one was presented to Group A (control) at normal word speed (21 minutes duration). The same lecture was presented to Group B (experimental), but at increased word speed (14 minutes duration). Group C (non-treatment) was not exposed to the tape recorded lecture. Rotational design was used for the second lecture presentation to adjust for possible inter-group differences. A thirty item recall test was administered to groups A and B immediately after presentation, and to the non-treatment group. Two to three weeks after each lecture a twenty item retention test was administered to groups A and B. Analysis of variance was computed on the raw test scores of control, experimental, and non-treatment groups for Recall Test I and II. A significant F-ratio (p <.001) was found for group comparisons on both tests. T-tests were calculated on the raw test scores of control and experimental groups for Recall Test I, Recall Test II, Retention Test I and Retention Test II. The results of these calculations did not demonstrate any significant differences between control and experimental groups for any of the four tests. It appears that lecture presentations, on a college level, can be increased in word rate, with a reduction in presentation time by one-third without any significant loss in recall or retention.

Time Compressed Speech—a Perspective

Abstract: It has now been fifteen years since Garvey published the results of his laborious first attempt to study the effects of time-compressing speech. While there has not until recently been a very heavy investment in research in this area, we have now reached a time when we may ask what we have learned in the interim. What do we need to know? What is the significance of work in this area? While these are questions of some difficulty, the clearly growing interest in compressed speech in the professional community underlines the importance of attempting tentative answers to them.

An Interpersonal Ethic for Communication

Abstract: A modern rhetoric has developed concerning itself with considerably more dimensions of speech than was the case with traditional rhetoric's concentration on persuasion and public address. Indeed, this modern rhetoric has expanded its domain to include the whole range of types of oral communication. But while this very basic kind of evolution has been taking place, it appears that a corresponding ethic (an interpersonal one) has not emerged. The authors make bold to try to stimulate that study. The interpersonal ethic proposed in the article can be stated as follows: A's communication is ethical to the extent that it accepts B's responses; it is unethical to the extent to which it develops hostility toward B's responses, or in some way tries to subjugate B. The ethic can be observed best, the authors believe, when A discovers that B rejects the message A is sending. Such an ethic springs from the following assumptions: (1) By virtue of the very nature of the communicative act, the two parties to a communication exercise control over each other. Both the listener and the speaker are, in part, at the other's mercy. (2) One of the highest values in a democratic culture is that conditions be created and maintained in which the potential of the individual is best realized. (3) The individual will be able to realize his potential to the extent that psychological freedom can be increased for him. An interpersonal ethic, the article suggests, may have more to do with the attitude of the speaker and listener toward each other than with elements of the message (as in the more traditional rhetoric). It may concern itself more with loyalty to the person with whom one is in communication than to rationality or cosmic truth.

Reference Groups, Congruity Theory and Cross‐Cultural Persuasion

Abstract: Certain hypotheses concerning persuasive communications, based on reference-group and congruity theory were tested in the field in France and Egypt. The research design involved three levels of identified sources, two levels of attribution of the source of the message, two levels of translation of the message, and five widely-used consumer products. The persuasive messages used were five print advertisements which had been run quite successfully in mass-circulated magazines in the United States. Findings suggest that persuasive messages are easier to transfer from one culture to another than is generally supposed. With the audience tested here, it seemed to make little difference whether the source was native or foreign, whether the message was attributed or not, or even whether it was illustrated. There was some support for the hypothesis that a message translated idiomatically is not as effective as one stressing the same point which is composed from scratch in the language of the intended audience. The study suggests that general theories such as reference group and consistency theories may need refinement and possible modification when they are applied to cultures other than the one in which they were developed.

Grammatical Complexity and Comprehension of Compressed Speech

Abstract: In order to investigate the effect of rate of presentation on the compression of materials that differed in grammatical complexity, an experiment was designed in which the comprehension-test portions of Forms A and B of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test were rewritten in an attempt to reduce grammatical complexity so as to make two difficulty levels available. The rewriting resulted in grammatically simplified versions of the original material. The variables, arranged in a multifactor independent-groups design, were: which of two levels of grammatical complexity was used, high or low; which of four rates of presentation was used, 175, 275, 325, or 375 words per minute; and which of two forms of the material was used, Form A or Form B. The dependent variable was the number of csorrect responses to test questions. An analysis of covariance was used to test the statistical significance of the effects. Verbal Scholastic Aptitude Test score was the adjusting variable. The following effects were statistically significant: (a) level of grammatical complexity—the grammatically simplified versions of both forms of the material resulted in greater average comprehension than the original versions; (b) rate of presentation—generally, comprehension remained at approximately the same level as rate of presentation increased from 175 wpm to 325 wpm, but from 325 wpm to 375 wpm, comprehension dropped off sharply; (c) form of material—Form B of the material resulted in greater average comprehension than Form A; (d) form of material by level of grammatical complexity—comprehension varied as a function of grammatical complexity when Form A of the test was used but did not vary when Form B was used.

Stimulus Parameters in Speech Compression

Abstract: A total of 36 stimulus tapes were prepared by the conjoint manipulation of three parameters potentially critical in their control of compression effects. These parameters were: (1) talker rate, manipulated through the limits attainable by a trained speaker; (2) selective pause compression at three values, 100, 50, and 0% deletions and (3) random deletions at four values, 0, 30, 50, and 70%. Each of the 36 stimulus tapes was analyzed with respect to distribution of pause-to-phonation time and rate. In addition, the message was analyzed in terms of the Information Theory in an attempt to specify the moment-to-moment textual constraints present. Comprehension data provided by 135 Ss indicated that pause distribution in a connected message interacts non-additively with rate. Pause-to-phonation ratios in normally accelerated speech decrease logarithmically as speech rate increases and artificial treatment of these ratios produces significant over-all rate increases which survive listening tests better than some random compression treatments. Methodological considerations are discussed in some detail in an attempt to suggest certain normative measures which would make it possible to more readily compare compression effects across differing messages, speakers and treatments, and as a consequence increase the generality of research findings.

Compressed Speech: Correlates of Listening Ability

Abstract: To identify sources of individual differences in the ability to comprehend compressed speech, a battery of tests was administered to 52 college students. The criterion variable was performance on four multiple choice tests based on the content of four recorded history passages. Subjects listened to these passages at a normal rate of approximately 175 wpm, and at three compressed rates: 250, 325, and 450 wpm. Compressed versions were prepared using the Tempo-Regulator. Certain ancillary data on intelligibility and comprehension were separately obtained from the same subjects by means of a sentence perception task. The results of a multiple regression analysis of test score data indicated that the best predictor of comprehension at high rates of compression was the Best Trend Name Test, originally developed as a measure of the ability to evaluate semantic relations -one of the components in the Guilford structure-of-intellect model of abilities. The outcome of a factor analysis of the test data supported an interpretation that the ability to rapidly match or compare concepts on the basis of semantic relatedness was a determinant of performance on the Best Trend Name Test. In an attempt to account for the significance of this ability in the comprehension of compressed speech, Guilford's concept was juxtaposed with the test or comparison operation postulated to be one stage in the “analysis-by-synthesis” model of speech perception.

Responsivity to facial and linguistic cues.

Abstract: Though information regarding personality and emotional variables are communicated through facial cues, linguistic cues, vocal cues, body position cues, and body movement cues, many individuals are aware of only responding to the linguistic content of others' behavior. Since such a wide variety of cues are available to the expressive individual, contradictory messages will be communicated by most individuals from time to time. The present study investigated the response of judges to incongruent cues. Judges were presented a 46 item test in which they were to rate the affect communicated through an individual's concurrent facial expression and linguistic message. On 32 of these items the face and the words communicated markedly different levels of pleasantness. Groups of 42 and 35 undergraduate students were tested for their tendency to utilize one or the other kind of cue. Data analysis suggested strikingly high reliability in individual's responsivity to facial or linguistic cues (r =.87, .92). Tests of this kind cannot be used to make statements about the general level of the public's responsivity to one kind of cue or another, since the artificial cues can be manipulated to make one or the other cue more or less striking, and the collector of any artificial cues has no way of knowing to what extent his material is representative of communication in the world at large. The reliability of this test, however, allows future research to divide groups into those more or less responsive to facial or linguistic cues.

Organizational Processes Underlying Differences Between Listening and Reading as a Function of Complexity of Material

Abstract: Listening and reading are the two major modes for the acquisition of knowledge. This study describes differences in selection (filtering), coding, and organizing materials by these two modes as a function of the complexity of the material. Complexity is defined logically, as well as linguistically and cognitively. For the three sets of materials used here, one excerpt was simple lexically, syntactically, and ideologically. The second was complex lexically and syntactically, but was constructed to contain precisely the same ideas and theme as the first. The third excerpt was simple lexically and ideologically, but was complex syntactically. The data were analyzed linguistically in traditional ways and cognitively for ideas, signals, total cognitive units, for omissions, distortions, and for additions of units. In general, listening, like speaking, seems to be freer from the stimulus and more prone to distort the material it conveys. Like speaking, listening seems to be a looser and less inhibited modality. It seems to be a more direct and less complicated process and a modality that is “more in tune” with thought processes as they occur naturally, than does reading.

Game Theory in Communication Research

Abstract: Most mathematical models of communication have, like information theory, described one-way transmission of information and its attendant characteristics. Yet most communication theorists will agree with Berlo that communication is a dynamic, interdependent process. The problem of mathematical description of such a process is quite difficult because this process transcends the mechanics of signaling. The theory of games, which analyzes interactions in terms of their outcomes, is proposed as an alternative mathematical description. The assumptions necessary for such description are (1) that most communication is purposeful activity occuring between at least two participants, (2) that the participants in this process have goals that are observable and measurable, (3) that the interaction of maximum value to participants represents the goal of ideal communication. Granting these assumptions, then communication can be described in terms of an array of outcomes or a matrix which can be “solved” by means of the theory of games. Such solution represents the “ideal” interaction and the application of such theory to communicative situations should be very productive.

Dichotic and diotic presentation of speeded speech.

Abstract: A study was done to determine the utility of recovering the discarded segments which are a necessary product of speech time compression using the method of Fairbanks. In this study the discarded segments were saved, and the speech signal processed digitally in such a way that the discarded segments could be played for one ear while the remaining segments were presented to the other ear. It was found that this manner of dichotic presentation was more intelligible than the customary manner of diotic presentation for several compression ratios and discard intervals.

A Systematic Way of Being Creative

Abstract: A few scholars, like Floyd W. Matson in The Broken Image and A. H. Maslow in The Psychology of Science, have discussed the “two cultures” of science and human experience. They point out that many persons tend to talk and act as though human experience (e.g., spontaneity, play, creativity) has nothing whatever to do with science. Or, perhaps it is more accurate to say that science rejects such determinants of human behavior. Similarly, to some persons the idea of being systematic and the idea of being creative seem irreconcilable. Is this always necessary? The method described does not imply that “great” creative products will necessarily result. However, by using Fisher's factorial notion it is possible to generate a large number of fresh communication messages with this technique. Such messages can be audience-centered, and can be designed for any public medium. A specific example demonstrates how new television program ideas can be created. The ingredients of content and style within the new program ideas are empirically related to recent audience studies, so such programs are expected to maximize the satisfaction for respective segments of the audience. The description of step-by-step procedures illustrates how the “systematic” and “creative” orientations can be meaningfully and productively integrated.

Information and Rational Choice

Abstract: Decision behavior may be thought of as a succession of individual choices. Thus, one way to study the decision-making process and the effects of certain variables on it is by examining the various effects of these variables on individual choices. This particular study is concerned with the effects of information on decision making. More specifically, it addresses the question of whether or not information influences behavior in choice decisions and the question of the extent to which information increases the rationality of choice.

Communications in a Public Bureaucracy: Involvement and Performance

Abstract: This article seeks to isolate several indices of communications in a public bureaucracy (the U.S. Bureau of the Budget) and to relate those indices to performance criteria in a systematic fashion. Two major propositions are tested through an examination of six hypotheses logically related to the propositions. The propositions are (1) high levels of personal activity in an organizational communication net will be associated positively with high levels of involvement in other communication nets, and (2) high levels of personal involvement in communication nets will be associated positively with effective job performance. The propositions are confirmed through an analysis of the data and lead to the conclusion that (1) the indices of communication tend to converge to the point where a single index (external telephone calls received) may be used to predict how an individual will relate to other communication nets both within and between organizations, and that (2) the same indicator may be used to predict the effectiveness of job performance of organizational participants. Data for the study were generated through the circulation of interview protocols in two divisions of the Budget Bureau in the spring of 1964.

Communication Research and the American Labor Union

Abstract: This article summarizes some of the writing and research relevant to communication and labor unions, reports the results of a questionnaire survey concerning future cooperative research programs, and presents specific data from a survey of union practices and opinions in oral communication. Much of the writing and research in this area is found in surveys of communication needs or descriptive treatments of training programs. Fewer investigators have concentrated on the behavioral foundations of labor-management interaction and even fewer have conducted intra-union research in organizational communication. There does seem to be some union support for future efforts in intra-union communication research- particularly from the State Central Body Presidents. Research is suggested primarily in the areas of how to communicate the importance of communication; communication patterns between various union dyads; characteristics of successful and unsuccessful communicators; and labor communication in conflict situations. The survey of oral communication shows the current status and disparity between training needed and training offered.

Communication needs of the active union member.

Abstract: The article surveys the kinds of activities in which the active union member is most frequently involved: (1) organizing, (2) bargaining, (3) administering and policing the agreement, (4) participating in union meetings, and (5) representing the union before other groups. Each activity imposes certain demands and limitations on the active unionist's communicative efforts. Following this sequence, the article then surveys the audiences with whom the unionist communicates and the most usual message or messages involved in each activity. The survey suggests that the audiences are different but identifiable, and that the usual messages are probably inadequate and/or inappropriate for their purposes. The article is primarily descriptive rather than prescriptive, but concludes that: 1 the content problems, and the kinds of activities and audiences in and with which the active unionist functions warrant further analysis and study. 2 given the variety and informal character of most communication activities, training for the active unionist should stress such skills as organization of ideas, conversation, sensitivity and adaptation to the needs and wants of listeners, semantics, and listening.

A Denotative and Connotative Study in Communication

Abstract: The purposes of this study were to investigate: (1) the definitions of communication preferred among 150 randomly selected members of the National Society for the Study of Communication; (2) the respondents' “ideal” referent or symbol when naming the dynamics of the interpersonal sending-receiving process. A questionnaire was sent to the above individuals, asking them to; (1) rank-order twelve definitions of communication (from most to least preferred)—this was the denotative phase of the study; (2) rate the concepts “Communication,”“Speech,” and “Persuasion” on three linear-graphic scales (of the Osgood, Suci, Tannenbaum type). The first scale measured the respondents' evaluative feelings of these three concepts (“Good to Bad” continuum). The second scale measured their feelings on the potency of the three concepts (“Strong to Weak” continuum). The third scale measured their orientation of the three concepts as to the complexity or simplicity of the terms when used to describe the process (“Complex to Simple” continuum)—this was the connotative phase of the study. Results were based on a 41% return (62 of 150); no follow-ups were made to contact the non-respondents. (1) Over-all rankings for the denotative phase of the study indicated that respondents preferred the communication definitions of: J. Ruesch and G. Bateson, first; W. Weaver, second; L. Thayer, third; S. Stevens, fourth; C. Hovland, fifth; C. Cherry, sixth; P. Tompkins, seventh; W. C. Redding, eighth; W. Schramm, ninth; T. Newcomb, tenth; E. Sapir, eleventh; and G. Miller, twelfth. Analysis of variance indicated the rankings to be significant at the .001 level. (2) The profile of mean scores in the connotative phase of the study indicated that respondents evaluated the concept “Communication” to be much better than the concepts “Speech” or “Persuasion.” The mean scores of the oriented activity scales indicated that “Communication” was perceived by the subjects to be “extremely complex,” whereas “Speech” and “Persuasion” were both viewed as being only “moderately complex.” Results from both the denotative and connotative phases of this study strongly suggested that there was much disparity among the respondents' rankings of communication definitions and ratings of concepts.

An Event‐Structure Model for Communication

Abstract: Floyd Allport's event-structure theory of behavior is the basis of this model. The process of communication is seen as the changing patterns of events or contacts between the constituent components of a transactional situation. A series of contacts between sub-components closes in on itself, thereby enabling the series to repeat itself and thus become a self sustaining process which can serve as a component of a higher order of a structure within the situation. This component may be the control cycle, or finally, the communication cycle. The analysis attempts to support George Gerbner's view that the behavioral patterns which sustain a message system are of more importance to research than whether a particular message does or does not change a specific response.

The Language of Dada

Abstract: An examination of the communicative aspects of Dadaism, a revolutionary movement in the arts which began as a series of violent protests against World War I and the attitudes that had brought it on, considering the following aspects: 1), the development of an artistic language, a strange blend of logic and psychologic, with the latter predominating; 2), the introduction of a new approach to fantasy and chance in the arts; 3), the Dadaist protest against “the laws of discursive thought,” the movement toward non-discursive kinds of meaning, and the attempt to convey the simultaneity of experience in the arts; and 4), the discovery of a unique expressiveness in everyday objects. It is concluded that the Dadaist protest against discursive logic paved the way for the development of non-discursive forms of expression. The Dada revolution extended the range of subject matter in the arts, opened up new modes of perception and new kinds of involvement for audiences, and was generally in the vanguard of the modern artist's attempts to explore realms of feeling and form that had previously been left dormant.

Development and Validation of a Communication Inventory for Supervisors

Abstract: The “Supervisory Inventory on Communication” (S.I.C.) was developed to meet the need for tools to help in the teaching of communication in business and industry. A preliminary draft of 160 items was mailed to 500 N.S.S.C. members and 120 responses were received. The final draft of 80 items was prepared and mailed to N.S.S.C. members. Responses were received from 136 members. An analysis of responses to the final draft of the S.I.C. was made to determine: “To what extent do N.S.S.C. members agree on definitions, philosophy, principles, and approaches to communication in industry and business?” The responses of the 136 N.S.S.C. members were tabulated and revealed the following: 1. Total Scores The average (mean) response was 74.9 correct items out of the 80. This was further broken down and showed an average score of 75.1 for academic N.S.S.C. members and 74.5 for non-academic N.S.S.C. members. 2. Item Analysis There were seven items out of 80 where more than 20% of the respondents disagreed with the scoring key answer. A disagreement of 34% with the scoring key response was the highest for any item of the S.I.C.

Content Analysis—A Probabilistic Approach

Abstract: A probabilistic model is presented which may be applied to perform content analysis on the computer. The procedure employs word stems as category entries and probabilities rather than units for allocating and enumerating content among categories. An application of the model was made to compare content coverage in monopoly and competitive newspapers. There was no appreciable difference due to interaction among monopoly and competitive paper types and content categories. Comparisons among categories showed an appreciably greater probability of news of more‘everyday’than of a violent classification, a finding which challenges a common criticism that the press presents disproportionate content of an inflammatory or violent nature.