Showing papers in "Journal of Experimental Psychology: General in 1995"
TL;DR: In this article, task-set reconfiguration was investigated in 5 experiments and on every 4th trial in a final experiment, where the tasks were to classify either the digit member of a pair of characters as even/odd or the letter member as consonant/vowel.
Abstract: In an investigation of task-set reconfiguration, participants switched between 2 tasks on every 2nd trial in 5 experiments and on every 4th trial in a final experiment. The tasks were to classify either the digit member of a pair of characters as even/odd or the letter member as consonant/vowel. As the response-stimulus interval increased up to 0.6 s, the substantial cost to performance of this predictable task-switch fell: Participants could partially reconfigure in advance of the stimulus. However, even with 1.2 s available for preparation, a large asymptotic reaction time (RT) cost remained, but only on the 1st trial of the new task. This is attributed to a component of reconfiguration triggered exogenously, i. e., only by a task-relevant stimulus. That stimuli evoke associated task-sets also explains why RT and switch costs increased when the stimulus included a character associated with the currently irrelevant task. © 1995 American Psychological Association.
2,896 citations
TL;DR: Relations between spellings and sounds in the simple monomorphemic words of English are more predictable when the level of onsets and rimes is taken into account than when only graphemes and phonemes are considered.
Abstract: The links between spellings and sounds in a large set of English words with consonantvowel-consonant phonological structure were examined Orthographic rimes, or units consisting of a vowel grapheme and a final consonant grapheme, had more stable pronunciations than either individual vowels or initial consonant-plus-vowel units In 2 large-scale studies of word pronunciation, the consistency of pronunciation of the orthographic rime accounted for variance in latencies and errors beyond that contributed by the consistency of pronunciation of the individual graphemes and by other factors In 3 experiments, as well, children and adults made more errors on words with less consistently pronounced orthographic rimes than on words with more consistently pronounced orthographic rimes Relations between spellings and sounds in the simple monomorphemic words of English are more predictable when the level of onsets and rimes is taken into account than when only graphemes and phonemes are considered
483 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a longitudinal investigation of French 2nd graders' acquisition of single-digit multiplication skill was conducted, and the authors reported that improvements in speed and accuracy that generally accompany learning can reflect at least four types of specific strategic changes: introduction of new strategies, increasing use of the most efficient existing strategies, more efficient execution of each strategy, and more adaptive choices among strategies.
Abstract: This study reports a longitudinal investigation of French 2nd graders' acquisition of single-digit multiplication skill. Speed, accuracy, and strategy use were assessed 3 times within the year when children learned multiplication. The data showed that improvements in speed and accuracy that generally accompany learning can reflect at least 4 types of specific strategic changes: introduction of new strategies, increasing use of the most efficient existing strategies, more efficient execution of each strategy, and more adaptive choices among strategies. The data also showed substantial continuities in learning: At all 3 points of measurement, children used multiple strategies, used retrieval most often on the same classes of problems, and used repeated addition on the most difficult problems. Stable individual differences were also apparent. The findings supported a number of predictions of Siegler and Shipley's (1995) adaptive strategy choice model. Implications for understanding learning, arithmetic, and strategy choice processes are discussed.
405 citations
289 citations
TL;DR: The intercept effect provides the statistically most secure finding yet obtained of a much-sought and controversial data pattern--indirect effect with no direct effect.
Abstract: Introduces a linear regression method for investigating unconscious cognition. For words that were obscured by simultaneous dichoptic masking, indirect effects (semantic priming) and direct effects (perceptual identification) were assessed in 20 experiments (total N = 2,026). When measures of both indirect and direct effects have rational zero points, a statistically significant intercept in the indirect-on-direct-measure regression shows that (a) the indirect effect occurred in the absence of the direct effect, and (b) unconscious cognition is involved. For a position discrimination task, but not for an evaluative decision task, indirect-on-direct regression showed the significant intercept effect. Although small in magnitude, this intercept effect provides the statistically most secure finding yet obtained of a much-sought and controversial data pattern--indirect effect with no direct effect. With one added assumption (which appears plausible for the present data), this pattern indicates that unconscious cognition is dissociated from (i.e., occurs separately from) conscious cognition.
282 citations
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270 citations
TL;DR: This article found that irony is used primarily to express a speaker's attitude toward the referent of the ironic utterance, while simultaneously fulfilling other goals as well, such as to be humorous, to make a situation less face threatening, and to serve politeness considerations.
Abstract: The allusional pretense theory claims that ironic remarks have their effects by alluding to a failed expectation. In normal conversation, this is accomplished by violating pragmatic rules of discourse, usually the maxim of sincerity. Such violations simultaneously draw a listener's attention to the failed expectation and express the speaker's attitude (normally but not necessarily negative) toward the failed expectation. Using a variety of utterance types, 3 experiments tested the theory. The first experiment, using 4 speech act types, showed that both insincerity and allusion were perceived far more frequently in ironically intended utterances than in literally intended ones. The second experiment demonstrated that the negative attitudes frequently expressed with ironic utterances are a function of the relative frequency of positive versus negative expectations and not an intrinsic characteristic of discourse irony per se. The third experiment found that over-polite requests are more likely to be used ironically than under-polite ones, presumably because the former can serve a speaker's politeness considerations while simultaneously conveying both an intended request and the speaker's attitude. It was concluded that irony is used primarily to express a speaker's attitude toward the referent of the ironic utterance, while simultaneously fulfilling other goals as well, such as to be humorous, to make a situation less face threatening, and to serve politeness considerations.
262 citations
TL;DR: Human and dolphin uncertain responses seem to be interesting cognitive analogs and may depend on cognitive or controlled decisional mechanisms, and the capacity to monitor ongoing cognition, and use uncertainty appropriately, would be a valuable adaptation for animal minds.
Abstract: Humans respond adaptively to uncertainty by escaping or seeking additional information. To foster a comparative study of uncertainty processes, we asked whether humans and a bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) would use similarly a psychophysical uncertain response. Human observers and the dolphin were given 2 primary discrimination responses and a way to escape chosen trials into easier ones. Humans escaped sparingly from the most difficult trials near threshold that left them demonstrably uncertain of the stimulus. The dolphin performed nearly identically. The behavior of both species is considered from the perspectives of signal detection theory and optimality theory, and its appropriate interpretation is discussed. Human and dolphin uncertain responses seem to be interesting cognitive analogs and may depend on cognitive or controlled decisional mechanisms. The capacity to monitor ongoing cognition, and use uncertainty appropriately, would be a valuable adaptation for animal minds. This recommends uncertainty processes as an important but neglected area for future comparative research.
229 citations
TL;DR: Several variants of the original process dissociation measurement model are integrated in this article, and it is shown that the model ignores guessing and, hence, response bias.
Abstract: L.L. Jacoby's (1991) process dissociation framework has been welcomed as a tool for differentiating controlled and automatic cognitive processes. Several variants of the original process dissociation measurement model are integrated in this article, and it is shown that the model ignores guessing and, hence, response bias. An extension of the original model is suggested that includes guessing parameters. The original model and the extended model are evaluated empirically. In 3 experiments using a yes-no recognition task, response bias was manipulated in various ways. The original model falsely attributes effects of response biases to either controlled or uncontrolled processes or to both. The extended model, in contrast, results in estimates of the contributions of controlled and uncontrolled memory processes that are relatively unaffected by response biases. The extended model is recommended as a measurement tool.
211 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a patient suffering from a progressive neurological degenerative condition of unknown origin, who showed a severe difficulty in number transcoding tasks was described, and a multiroute model for numerical processing was proposed to account for S.A.M.'s pattern of performance.
Abstract: This article describes a patient (S.A.M.), suffering from a progressive neurological degenerative condition of unknown origin, who showed a severe difficulty in number transcoding tasks. S.A.M. could recognize and understand arabic numerals and written number names, but he could neither read them aloud nor write them. However, he had a well maintained ability to perform oral and written calculations. The striking pattern of performance observed in S.A.M. suggests that deficits affecting the ability to produce arabic or verbal numerals can be specific to particular task demands. This observation cannot be easily accommodated by current models of numerical processing. A new multiroute model for numerical processing is proposed to account for S.A.M.'s pattern of performance. This model adds asemantic transcoding pathways to the semantic processing mechanisms proposed by the M. McCloskey model. © 1995 American Psychological Association.
TL;DR: The results contradict models of attention stating that listeners process task-irrelevant information extensively without diverting resources used in shadowing.
Abstract: Though E. C. Cherry (1953) examined the recall of information from an irrelevant spoken channel in selective listening, the relationship between attention and subsequent recall still has not been examined adequately. It was examined here in 4 experiments, 3 of which were designed to identify conditions under which some participants, but not others, would notice a change from forward to backward speech. Only participants who shifted attention toward the irrelevant channel during the backward speech later recalled hearing it. In those whose attention shifted, shadowing errors peaked dramatically about 15 s after the change. There was no evidence of direct or indirect memory for phrases presented in the irrelevant channel. The results contradict models of attention stating that listeners process task-irrelevant information extensively without diverting resources used in shadowing.
TL;DR: Whether the process dissociation method provides the correct estimates of components if performance actually depends on only a single process or on 2 processes different from those assumed by the method is investigated.
Abstract: According to the assumptions of L. L. Jacoby's (1991) process dissociation method, performance in recognition memory is determined by the combination of an unconscious familiarity process and a conscious intentional recollection process. The process dissociation method is used to produce estimates of the contributions of the 2 components to recognition performance. This article investigates whether the method provides the correct estimates of components if performance actually depends on only a single process or on 2 processes different from those assumed by the method. The SAM model (G. Gillund & R. M. Shiffrin, 1984) was used to produce simulated data based on a single process. Variants of SAM with 2 processes and R. C. Atkinson and J. F. Juola's (1973) 2-process model were used to produce data based on 2 processes.
TL;DR: This article showed that causal models can guide the interpretation of otherwise identical learning inputs, and that learning difficulty is determined by the fit between the structural implications of the causal models and the structure of the learning domain.
Abstract: This article proposes that learning of categories based on cause-effect relations is guided by causal models. In addition to incorporating domain-specific knowledge, causal models can be based on knowledge of such general structural properties as the direction of the causal arrow and the variability of causal variables. Five experiments tested the influence of commoncause models and common-effect models on the ease of learning linearly separable and nonlinearly separable categories. The results show that causal models guide the interpretation of otherwise identical learning inputs, and that learning difficulty is determined by the fit between the structural implications of the causal models and the structure of the learning domain. These influences of the general properties of causal models were obtained across several different content domains, including domains for which subjects lacked prior knowledge. Tasks as apparently diverse as classical conditioning, category learning, and causal induction often require the learner to combine multiple cues in order to elicit a response. The cues may be conditioned stimuli (in conditioning), features of category instances (in category learning), or possible causes (in causal induction). Numerous learning models have been proposed in each of these areas, and a great deal of theoretical interest has focused on the extent to which common learning mechanisms may operate across these formally similar tasks. Most of these theories model learning as a domain-general process, bottom-up and basically associative in nature, that applies across diverse domains. Recently, more top-down or theory-based approaches have been proposed, which view learning as guided by domain-specific theories. In the present article we outline a position that is intermediate between these two views. We claim that a major subset of learning situations—
TL;DR: This article showed that even when target events are encoded and retrieved in the same physical setting, memory performance suffers if the attending affective states differ, whereas a change in environment produces no performance decrement if, whether by chance (Experiments 1 and 2) or by design (Experiment 3).
Abstract: Converging evidence form 3 studies suggests that how well information transfers from one environment to another depends on how similar the environments feel rather than on how similar they look. Thus, even when target events are encoded and retrieved in the same physical setting, memory performance suffers if the attending affective states differ. Conversely, a change in environment produces no performance decrement if, whether by chance (Experiments 1 and 2) or by design (Experiment 3), the mood at encoding matches the mood at retrieval. These observations imply that place dependent effects are mediated by alterations in affect or mood, and that data that appear on the surface to demonstrate place dependent memory may, at a deeper level, denote the presence of mood dependent memory. Discussion focuses on prospects for future research aimed at clarifying the relations among moods, places, and memory.