Showing papers in "Journal of Industrial Ecology in 1998"

Society's Metabolism-The Intellectual History of Materials Flow Analysis, Part I, 1860-1970

Abstract: Summary “Societal metabolism” provides the appropriate conceptual basis for the rapidly growing development and analylical and policy interest in materials flow analysis (MFA). Following the review of the earlier intellectual background of societal metabolism in the first installment of this two-part article, this paper focuses on the current state of the art by examining more recent research referring t o societal metabolism in terms of material and substance flows. An operational classification of the literature according to frame of reference (socioeconomic system, ecosystem), system level (global, national, regional, functional, temporal), and types of flows under consideration (materials, energy, substances) highlights some of its characteristic features. There follows an integrated discussion of some of the major conceptual and methodological properties of MFA, with a particular focus on the field of bulk materials flows on a national level, comparing the major empirical results. Finally, the theoretical stringency research productivity, and political relevance of the MFA-related studies are assessed.

Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness

Abstract: Summary In the emerging field of industrial ecology one of the unsettled questions is the degree to which design for the environment, closing energy and materials loops, and other industrial ecology concepts apply at the firm level In this article we examine this issue with a particular focus on whether industrial ecology can guide company strategy and efforts to enhance competitiveness We conclude that industrial ecology thinking will often be useful for firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their competitiveness The systems perspective that industrial ecology promotes can help companies find ways to add value or reduce costs both within their own production processes and up and down the supply chain But industrial ecology cannot always be counted upon to yield competitive advantage at the firm level In some cases, the cost of closing loops will exceed the benefits In other cases, regulatory requirements do not fully internalize environmental costs, and thus polluting firms may gain temporary or permanent cost advantages relative to companies that attempt to eliminate all emissions Finally, because industrial ecology focuses attention on materials and energy flows, it may not optimize other variables that contribute to competitiveness within the corporate setting

Sustainability Indicators at the Firm Level

Abstract: Summary After reviewing recent attempts to develop sustainability indicators, this article shows how the principles of productive efficiency can be used to elaborate such indicators at the firm level. The theory of productive efficiency is somewhat expanded to incorporate fundamental issues of sustainable development: environment, equity, and futurtty. Efficiency, in the expanded notion of productive efficiency, is viewed as a necessary condition for sustainability. Working with aggregate performance indicators, it is important not to lose track of the relevant basic information. Therefore, instead of elaborating one unique indicator; we propose to implement several kinds of indicators, each of which stresses one particular focus (e.g., environmental vs. social concems). The definition of sustainable development indicators is illustrated with reference to a small data set of U.S. fossil fuel-fired electric utilities. In a sustainabiltty perspective, two important aspects are stressed, namely, the use of nonmewable resources and the inclusion of employment as a variable to maximize rather than an input to minimize. The article ends with a discussion of the significance of, and limits to, the proposed indicators.

Indicators of Dematerialization and the Materials Intensity of Use

Abstract: Summary We review the major empirical analyses of the related concepts of dematerialization and intensity of use. Dematerialization refen to the absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of materials used and/or the quantity of waste generated in the production of a unit of economic output A common indicator is the intensity of material use, which is the quantity of material used per unit of economic output. Our discussion focuses on seven topics: the environmental Kuznets curve for materials, material use and long wave theory material decomposition analysis, statistical, inpuboutput and dynamic models of material use, and analyses of national material use. We examine the measurement of aggregate material use and waste emissions, hypothesis testing, the importance of imports, and forces that countervail dematerialization such as rising affluence and the “rebound effect.” We conclude that: our knowledge of the extent of and mechanisms behind the patterns of material use are limited largely to individual materials or very specific industries, and most of those examples are metals; the economy is getting “lighter” but the aggregate economic significance of that trend, if any, is unknown; there is no compelling macroeconomic evidence that the US. economy is “decoupled” from material inputs; and we know even less about the net environmental effects of many changes in materials use. We caution against gross generalizations about material use, particularly the “gut” feeling that technical change, substitution, and a shift t o the “information age” inexorably lead to decreased materials intensity and reduced environmental impact. We end with some suggestions for research that may help answer these important questions.

The factor X Debate: Setting targets for Eco-Efficiency

Abstract: Summary The quantification and achievement of eco-efficiency or dematerialization in the form of a factor X, with X varying between 4 and 50 is being espoused by a variety of analysts and advocates. Politically, these efforts are mainly confined to some European countries. They reflect a remarkable technological optimism. This article reviews some of the major issues pertinent to the factor X debate. The case is presented for quantifying dematerialization or eco-efficiency goals using a factor X. It is also found that the factor X lacks precision as yet, and that there is only limited interest in the possibilrty that achievable values for X may vary widely among economic activities given technological constraints. There is no agreement whether technological improvement alone will be sufficient to achieve a factor X in practice for economies as a whole. It seems likely, however; that government-driven technology forcing will be necessary to achieve a factor X in practical terms, especially when X is relatively large.

Site‐Dependent Life‐Cycle Impact Assessment of Acidification

Abstract: Summary The lack of spatial differentiation in current life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) affects the relevance of the assessed impact. This article first describes a framework for constructing factors relating the region of emission to the acidifying impact on its deposition areas. Next, these factors are established for 44 European regions with the help of the RAINS model, an integrated assessment model that combines information on regional emission levels with information on long-range atmospheric transport to estimate patterns of deposition and concentration for comparison with critical loads and thresholds for acidification, eutrophication via air; and tropospheric ozone formation. The application of the acidification factors in LCIA is very straightforward. The only additional data required, the geographical site of the emission, is generally provided by current life-cycle inventory analysis. The acidification factors add resolving power of a factor of 1,000 difference between the highest and lowest ratings, while the combined uncertainties in the RAINS model are canceled out to a large extent in the acidification factors as a result of the large number of ecosystems they cover The framework presented is also suitable for establishing similar factors for eutrophication and tropospheric ozone formation for regions outside Europe as well.

Reuse of Electric Motors in Consumer Products

Abstract: Summary Product takeback calls for sound strategies of product recovery management One such strategy-is the reuse of the components of a product. There are consumer products such as power tools whose most expensive component, the electric motor; offers potential for reuse. Empirical evidence reveals that the lifetime of a motor often exceeds the life-time of the product using it. This article focuses on the reuse of electric motors. For this purpose, a novel circuit was developed that measures, computes, and records parameters strongly correlated with the degradation of a motor during the use stage of the product. This circuit, called electronic data log (EDL), provides valuable insights into the usage patterns of products. The data recorded during the use stage are retrieved after product takeback as a basis for reuse decisions. In this article, the trade-off between higher initial manufacturing cost caused by the EDL and cost savings from the reuse of used motors is analyzed. The problem of misclassifications of used motors is also addressed. It is shown that the return rate of used products is the critical parameter determining the economic efficiency of a motorreuse strategy based on EDLs. The analysis shows that the implementation of EDLs in products as an enabler for motor reuse may be associated with large cost savings

Talking with the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection

Abstract: Summary In recent years, governments throughout the world have expressed growing interest in cooperative approaches to environmental protection, including negotiated rulemaking, flexible approaches t o enforcement, and voluntary codes and agreements. It is often argued that cooperative approaches are more cost effective, more conducive t o innovation, and better able t o promote fundamental attitudinal change than traditional “command and control” regulation. However, the overly broad term “cooperative approaches” fails t o acknowledge fundamental differences among these novel po I icies, including distinct ions between mandatory and voluntary programs and between those that involve bipartite negotiations between government and business and those that invite participation by a broader range of interests. This article analyzes these cooperative approaches first by offering a framework to distinguish among various cooperative policy instruments. Second, the article critically examines theoretical arguments and empirical evidence concerning one class o f cooperative approaches, voluntary challenges and agreements. The most striking finding is how little we know about the effectiveness of voluntary approaches. This is a function not only of the quite recent experience with these approaches, but also of more fundamental inattention t o program evaluation and obstacles to evaluation inherent in voluntary programs. The article concludes with a call for a more rigorous program of research to examine the effectiveness of the new policy instruments and t o compare them with traditional regulation and market-based incentives.

Influence of Inventory Data Sets on Life‐Cycle Assessment Results: A Case Study on PVC

Abstract: Summary This study compared six widely used European life-cycle assessment (LCA) inventory data sets, identified those, data elements that introduce major differences, and quantitatively determined the influence of these data elements for a cradle-to-gate LCA o f polyvinyl chloride (PVC).Large differences in data (10- I 100%) were found. Data on substances with recognized high environmental impact and easily determined emissions and environmental impacts, like those related to energy, show the least differences. Process-specific emissions show larger differences. Substantially more substances emitted t o air than t o water or soil are reported, and differences between the values are less. Furthermore, various inventory data sets donot always cover the same substances. Often, individual substances, such as specific (chlorinated) hydrocarbons and metals, are collectively categorized rather than individually reported. Specific data elements o f the inventory causing many differences were geographical, temporal, and technological representativeness; categorization o f substances; naming of substance categories; use of different category definitions: system boundaries; and allocation method. The influence of these differences on LCA results, determined through sensitivity analysis, was significant, typically 10- 100%. Results emphasize the importance of appropriate and explicitly described data sets and the necessity o f sensitivity analyses. Results also show the need for a regularly updated and openly available database with high quality data. The availability of such a database would improve the reliability of LCA and thereby stimulate its application.

Material Reuse Modeling: A Case Study of Water Reuse in an Industrial Park

Abstract: Summary The techniques of water distribution modeling, a well-developed subject, have been applied to water management in an industrial park-the Bayport chemical manufacturing complex in Houston, Texas in the United States. Linear and other mathematical programming approaches were used to evaluate water reuse opportunities for a variety of scenarios, including redesigning the industrial water use network, adding a facility to the network, limiting the total water available to the network, and varying the price of water rhe results of the modeling demonstrate that a number of economical water reuse opportunities may exist for this network of facilities. More generally, the types of mathematical models developed for water reuse may find application in reuse modeling for other materials.

Comments on “The Grand Objectives” by Thomas E. Graedel

Abstract: Summary In “The Grand Objectives: A Framework for Prioritized Grouping of Environmental Concerns in Life-Cycle Assessment” Thomas Graedel (1997) proposed an elegant schema for prioritizing environmental concerns It operates at three levels: grand objectives, environmental concerns, and targeted activities I argue that consensus is most likely on the first and third levels, but that the middle level, environmental concerns, is more problematic Even among individuals who agree on general societal directions, strong differences of views can occur regarding specific technologies I illustrate by applying Graedel's system to his “radionuclide” category, under his first grand objective (human species extinction) I use the example of nuclear waste to illustrate how values are inextricably involved at the “environmental concerns” level My analysis suggests ways to enhance the utility of Graedel's useful system

Earth Systems Engineering: The Role of Industrial Ecology in an Engineered World

Abstract: Summary A principal result of the Industrial Revolution and concomitant changes in human population levels, technology systerns, and culture has been the evolution of a world in which the dynamics of major natural systems are increasingly dominated by human activity Many resulting anthropogenic perturbations of fundamental natural systems-for example, the nitrogen and carbon cycles and heavy metal stocks and flows-have been both unanticipated and problematic. Reducing such unintended consequences of human activity will require development of the ability to rationally engineer and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated fashion. Such “earth systems engineering” activity will rely on industrial ecology studies and methodologies to provide critical elements of the required science bb and technology (S&T) base. Although the need to develop such anffff earth systems engineering Andustrial ecology capability is clear, it is also apparent that the current S&T bbbase, institutional structures, and ethical systems are inadequate to support such activity Accordingly, it is desirable to begin to develop such support structures while recognizing that premature attempts to engineer fundamental natural systems should be discouraged.

The Economic and Environmental Impact of Wastepaper Trade and Recycling in India: A Material Balance Approach

Abstract: Summary There have been increasing pressures by governments and nongovernmental organizations to restrict international trade in waste in the conviction that each nation has to take care of its own waste. We develop a sectoral flow model to investigate if free trade in nontoxic waste can support economic development and simultaneously reduce environmental degradation. The model is formulated as a nonlinear programming model with an objective function that minimizes environmental and economic costs. The model in principle describes the life cycle of Indian paper: Preliminary results suggest that trade in wastepaper is both economically and environmentally advantageous. The results also show that domestic and imported waste-paper are complementary and that import of wastepaper does not “crowd out” the domestic waste paper sector. This implies that the current trend of increasing trade of wastepaper does contribute to a more sustainable paper cycle in India.

Heavy metal balances: Part I. General aspects of cadmium, copper, zinc and lead balance studies in agro-ecosystems

Abstract: The control of heavy metals in such a way that soil functioning and product quality are not impeded is a prerequisite to sustainable agriculture. The current status of heavy metal accumulation in agricultural soils differs widely by region, by metal, and by agricultural system; levels of concern have already been reached in several regions (for instance, in the Netherlands and Australia). An analysis of the input and output fluxes of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in agriculture and of their resulting accumulation in agricultural soils is necessary to define strategies that ensure sustainable management of these metals in agricultural systems. In this article, general aspects of heavy-metal balance studies are described for the agricultural sector within the broader context of substance flow analysis and industrial ecology. The approach chosen in this study is both precautionary and related to actual problem areas.

Recycling Postconsumer Nylon Carpet: A Case Study of the Economics and Engineering Issues Associated with Recycling Postconsumer Goods

Abstract: Summary Each year 34 billion pounds of nylon carpet are discarded into landfills in the United States. As a case study we examine the technical and economic feasibility of recycling a portion of this source of discarded plastic. The carpet could be (I) shredded for use as daily cover at landfills or as a strengthening component of concrete, (2) sheared or chemically processed for reuse as recycled nylon or as pure nylon feedstock, or (3) made into a new type of plastic. We estimate the costs of a recycling facility to handle 450,000 Ib of discarded nylon carpet each month in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. We found that with current technology, regulations, and markets, only the recycling of carpet from commercial settings using shearing or chemical processing is economical and only under very narrow circumstances. We learned four lessons from this study, First, collection costs are high and can dominate the economics of recycling. Second, given time and incentives, collection costs can be reduced. Third, trying to recycle products not designed to be recycled leads to many problems. Carpet could be redesigned to make recycling easier by making the carpet out of a single material and using an adhesive that can be removed easily. Fourth, recycling processes should be designed to produce an existing material if at all possible, because new materials present marketing problems.

Trade-off Modeling for Product and Manufacturing Process Design for the Environment

Abstract: Summary This article presents a method for integrating pollution prevention and concurrent engineering (simultaneous design of products and the manufacturing processes used to produce them). The central issue is unavoidable trade-offs, such as those among pollution, manufacturing cost, and quality. The probabilistic nature of the manufacturing process is exploited as an opportunity for pollution preventi0n.A decision tool in the form of a mathematical model is presented, which can be used by engineers and others with whom these trade-offs must be negotiated, Specifically, the method integrates statistical manufacturing process control into a mubobjective design optimization formulation. First, the framework of a multiattribute utilty function is developed to determine which objectives are both relevant and negotiable. Then, a statistical manufacturing process control experiment is conducted to formulate some of the constraints that prevent all objectives from being maximized. Simultaneously, information obtained from the experiment is also used to fine-tune the upper and lower bounds in the utility functions. The results of an industrial case study of a floor tile manufacturer are presented, from the manufacturer's viewpoint. The material choice and manufacturing process settings that result in the best combination of the conflicting objectives of product quality (measured in terms of scrap rate), air pollution, and manufacturing cost are determined. The analysis also reveals the irony that for this manufacturer; efforts to reduce solid waste through greater use of scrap materials increase air pollution levels

Western European Materials as Sources and Sinks of CO2

Abstract: Summary Materials use is an important factor influencing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions because significant amounts of carbon dioxide are released during the production of materials from natural resources, and because products and wastes can function as important sinks for CO2. This article analyzes the impact of Western European materials use on CO2 emissions. The material flows for steel, cement, petrochemicals, and wood products are analyzed in more detail. The analysis shows that particular characteristics of the materials system must be considered in the development of emission reduction strategies. It is important to select a relatively closed system for policymaking, as in Western Europe, in order to prevent unwanted transboundary effects. The materials stored in the form of products, and the net exports of materials, products, and waste limit the potential of a recycling strategy. Carbon storage in products and waste disposal sites is significant both for synthetic and natural organic materials, but is not accounted for in natural organic materials in current emissions statistics. Accordingly the emissions accounting practices should be modified to reflect the storage of such materials.

Emissions of Total Volatile Organic Compounds from Anthropogenic Sources in India

Abstract: Summary Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have a direct bearing on the levels of ozone and other reactive chemicals in the atmosphere and play an important role in determining air quality Anthropogenic emission of VOCs has greatly increased due to growing consumption of fossil fuels and related activities. This article presents an emissions inventory for VOCs emitted from anthropogenic soutres in India. VOC emissions factors for important source categories and activities are assembled from the literature and an effort is made to use Indian emission factors as far as possible. Important sources of VOCs include livestock, combustion of firewood and fossil fuels, rice paddy fields, manufacturing. petroleum (production and refining), natural gas (production and distribution), vehicular exhaust, and coal mining. The annual anthropogenic VOC emissions for India have been estimated to be 21 million metric tons (mt). A comparison of VOC emissions inventories for a group of countries varying in their industrial and economic development, in terms of income (gross domestic product, or GDP), population, and land area, reflects the differences among the countries. This VOC emissions inventory provides baseline information for comparisons over time and across countries. In addition, it may serve as an important tool for formulating national VOC control policies.

Learning before Doing

Abstract: Summary Over the past decade, advances in computing, combined with new techniques for virtual prototyping and simulation, have altered our approach to the areas of training, design, and product and process development. Taken collectively these capabilities represent one of the most significant changes in the production paradigm since the beginning of mass production and one with important implications for the environment. These advances need to be viewed as more than just a new set of tools in the industrial ecology tool box They provide the basis for a fundamental shift in how we learn and solve environmental problems-an opportunity to move from learning too late to learning before doing. Industrial ecology can embrace and articulate this new framework for learning and apply it broadly to the challenge of facilitating social and technological change and innovation in an increasingly complex world.