Showing papers in "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 1965"

Influence of Models' Reinforcement Contingencies on the Acquisition of Imitative Responses

Abstract: The acquisition of imitative responses under the latter conditions appears to be accounted for more adequately by a contiguity theory of observational learning. Some suggestive evidence that the acquisition of matching responses may take place through contiguity, whereas reinforcements administered to a model exert their major influence on the performance of imitatively learned responses, is provided in a study in which models were rewarded or punished for exhibiting aggressive behavior. The number of different physical and verbal imitative responses emitted spontaneously by the children constituted the performance measure. It is evident from the differences reported separately for boys and girls, that the significant effect of the model's reinforcement contingencies is based predominantly on differences among the girls' subgroups. It is evident, however, that contemporaneous reinforcements are unnecessary for the acquisition of new matching responses.

Communicator-recipient similarity and decision change.

Abstract: municator is perceived to have had with an object, the more likely it is that the recipient's behavior with respect to the object will be modified by the communicator's influence attempts. The second hypothesis followed the aforementioned research on communicator- recipient similarity: to the extent that the recipient perceives that he and the communicator share an attribute, that is, have a similar relationship to an object, to that extent is the recipient's behavior with respect to the object likely to be modified by the communicator's influence attempts. The two forces, perceived communicator expertise and perceived communicator similarity, were pitted against one another by conducting a field experiment in which the communicator, for half the recipients, was perceived as similar but inexperienced while for the other half, he was perceived as dissimilar but experienced. METHOD

Visual behavior in a dyad as affected by interview content and sex of respondent.

Abstract: Hypotheses concerning effects of content, concealment instructions, and sex of partner upon willingness to engage in mutual glances were tested in a 2X2X2X2 factorial design. 40 male and 40 female students (Ss) were interviewed by 1 graduate student of each sex (E). Interviewers gazed steadily at S while asking very personal or innocuous questions. Mutual glances were recorded and results showed: (a) Ss, when speaking, looked at E significantly more during the innocuous interview; (b) female Ss looked significantly more regardless of E's sex; (c) only sex differences were found in a postexperimental discussion; and (d) female Ss were more affectionate and inclusion oriented. Results are discussed in terms of motives to conceal, cathect, and/or reduce distractions. Mediating effects of personality variables are suggested. This study reports results from an investigation of factors which affect visual interaction, i.e., looks and glances, in groups and dyads. Cherry (1957) points out that there is no communication without a system of signs, and that a sign can be denned as any physical event used in communication, i.e., "a natural or conventional motion used instead of words to convey information [p. 7]." Since looking at or away from another is a natural motion and since people characteristically read meanings into such fixations or avoidances, we assume that visual interaction is a form of nonverbal communication. There is evidence that visual interaction will lend itself to a study of nonverbal com

Internal versus external control of reinforcement and decision time.

Abstract: Previous research has shown generality of individual differences in an expectancy that reinforcement is contingent on one's own behavior (internal control) versus an expectancy that reinforcement is determined by luck, chance, fate or powerful others (external control). The hypothesis was investigated that "internals" and "externals" differ in the value placed on the same reward depending upon whether it is perceived as contingent upon chance or skill. To test this, decision time was measured in a difficult matching task, and described to 1 the Ss as skill, and to 4 as chance determined. Results show significant interaction between internal-external control and chance vs. skill instructions. As hypothesized, internals take longer with skill instructions, externals with chance instructions. The study extends the construct validity of the internal-external control variable and has implications for personality, cultural differences, and decision theory. A series of previous investigations has demonstrated that the perception of a situation as controlled by chance, luck, fate, or powerful others will lead to predictable differences in behavior, in comparison to situations where a person feels that reinforcement is controlled by his own behavior (Holden & Rotter, 1962; James & Rotter, 1958; Phares, 1957, 1962; Rotter, Liverant, & Crowne, 1961). Other studies have indicated that individuals differ reliably in the degree to which they perceive reinforcement in a variety of ambiguous social situations to be controlled by their own characteristics and/or behavior versus by external forces. Such differences have been observed in children and adults and appear to be generalized over a wide variety of social situations. Results of these investigations have shown

Modifications of self-imposed delay of reward through exposure to live and symbolic models.

Abstract: In a comparative test of the relative efficacy of live and symbolic models for modifying delay-of-reward behavior, groups of children with marked preferences for either immediate but less valued rewards, or more valuable delay reinforcers, were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 experimental conditions. 1 group observed live models who exhibited delay behavior that was counter to the children's pattern; a 2nd group was presented essentially the same modeling cues except in symbolic verbal form; while a 3rd group had no exposure to any models. Changes in Ss' delay-of-reward behavior were measured immediately following exposure to the modeling procedures, and reassessed approximately 1 mo. later within a different stimulus situation. Both live and symbolic models produced substantial modifications in delay-of-reward behavior within the immediate social-influence setting, but the changes induced in high-delay children through exposure to symbolic models were less stable over time.

The relationship of disturbances and hesitations in spontaneous speech to anxiety.

Abstract: Past work has indicated that flustered or confused speech can be classed into several distinct speech disturbance categories. Such disturbances, occurring frequently in everyday conversation, have no conventional semantic function. In the present study, 25 experimental and 20 control male Ss were used. Anxiety was manipulated in an interview setting. Under anxiety, the frequency of all speech disturbances, except the familiar "ah," showed a sizable increase. The frequency of ah's increased strikingly in a change from normal to a telephonelike conversation. Such change did not affect the other disturbances. Measurement of palmar sweat revealed modest positive association with the speech disturbances. Exploration of the relationship of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety scale to the disturbances suggested that the ah is functionally distinct from the other speech disturbances. This paper is concerned with an investigation of the relationship between experimentally induced anxiety and certain kinds of speech disruptions. In approaching the problem of psychological analysis of human speech and its content, one can take, roughly, two general directions. The first one stresses the manifest content of the message and relies more or less on its face validity. Moreover, when it becomes quantitative, it seems to assume an isomorphic relation between a particular behavioral state (e.g., the intensity of fear) and the quantitative aspects of the content (e.g., the frequency of statements about fear). The direction of the second approach leads one to emphasize the instrumental function of language and speech, which may frequently lie in the seemingly irrelevant, nonlexical aspects of the message. Thus language may have signal properties which lie beyond its symbolic nature. The intent of the experiment described below was to demonstrate the usefulness of the latter approach without arguing, except perhaps indirectly, the weaknesses of the former. Language is seen as an expressive behavior system with instrumental and reactive properties; the speech disturbances, the "flustered" speech, are taken to be a nonlexical attribute that is relatively free from both linguistic and general social control. That is, these aspects of speech are assumed to be linguistically irrelevant. SPEECH DISTURBANCES AND PREVIOUS WORK WITH THEM High-fidelity tape recordings of psychotherapy interviews have revealed that instances of confused or "flustered" speech can be analyzed into a variety of separate, identifi

Liberating effects of group pressure.

Abstract: In laboratory research, the effect of group pressure has most often been studied in its negative aspect; the conspiratorial group is shown to limit, constrain, and distort the individual's responses (Asch, 1951; Blake & Brehm, 19S4; Milgram, 1964). Edifying effects of the group, although acknowledged, have rarely been demonstrated with the clarity and force of its destructive potential. Particularly in those areas in which a morally relevant choice is at issue, experimentalists typically examine pressures that diminish the scope of individual action. They have neglected effects that enhance the individual's sense of worth, enlarge the possibilities for action, and help the subject resolve conflicting feelings in a direction congruent with his ideals and values. Although in everyday life occasions arise when conformity to group pressures is constructive, in the laboratory "thinking and investigation have concentrated almost obsessively on conformity in its most sterile forms [Asch, 1959]. "2