Showing papers in "Journal of Research in Science Teaching in 1983"

Effect of instruction using students' prior knowledge and conceptual change strategies on science learning.

Abstract: One of the factors affecting students' learning in science is their existing knowledge prior to instruction. The students' prior knowledge provides an indication of the alternative conceptions as well as the scientific conceptions possessed by the students. This study is concerned primarily with students' alternative conceptions and with instructional strategies to effect the learning of scientific conceptions; i.e., to effect conceptual change from alternative to scientific conceptions. The conceptual change model used here suggests conditions under which alternative conceptions can be replaced by or differentiated into scientific conceptions and new conceptions can be integrated with existing conceptions. The instructional strategy and materials were developed for a particular student population, namely, black high school students in South Africa, using their previously identified prior knowledge (conceptions and alternative conceptions) and incorporate the principles for conceptual change. The conceptions involved were mass, volume, and density. An experimental group of students was taught these concepts using the special instructional strategy and materials. A control group was taught the same concepts using a traditional strategy and materials. Pre- and posttests were used to assess the conceptual change that occurred in the experimental and control groups. The results showed a significantly larger improvement in the acquisition of scientific conceptions as a result of the instructional strategy and materials which explicitly dealt with student alternative conceptions.

Children's conceptions of the changes of state of water

Abstract: Children are very familiar with water, ice, and steam as these things have been part of their lives since they first crawled into the kitchen. In this study children's conceptions about familiar phenomena associated with water, e.g., evaporating, condensing, boiling, and the melting of ice, were investigated using a clinical interview technique. The prevalence of specific views at particular age levels was also studied. The results of the investigation indicate that children do have ideas about the changes of state of water which are quite different from the views of scientists. It would also appear that these ideas can sometimes be influenced in unintended ways by science teaching. The implications of these findings for teaching are discussed.

The effects of new science curricula on student performance

Abstract: This study summarizes the results of a quantitative synthesis of the retrievable primary research dealing with the effects of new science curricula on student performance. This study synthesizes the results of 105 experimental studies involving more than 45,000 students and utilizes the quantitative synthesis perspective to research integration known as meta-analysis (Glass, 1976). A total of 27 different new science curricula involving one or more measures of student performance are included in this meta-analysis. Data were collected for 18 a priori selected student performance measures. The results of this meta-analysis reveal definite positive patterns of student performance in new science curricula. Across all new science curricula analyzed, students exposed to new science curricula performed better than students in traditional courses in general achievement, analytic skills, process skills, and related skills (reading, mathematics, social studies and communication), as well as developing a more positive attitude toward science. On a composite basis, the average student in new science curricula exceeded the performance of 63% of the students in traditional science courses.

The myth of equality in science classrooms

Abstract: An analysis of the 1976-1977 NAEP survey of science attitudes showed that, by age nine, females, although expressing similar or greater desires to participate in science activities, had consistently fewer experiences in science than boys of the same age. Science activities surveyed included use of common experimental materials and instruments, observation of scientific phenomena, and field trips. At ages 13 and 17, girls again reported fewer classroom and extracurricular science activities than boys. Their responses indicated narrow perceptions of science and of the usefulness of scientific research. In addition, they displayed generally negative attitudes toward science classes and careers. Suggestions to eliminate the inequalities found are offered.

Science teacher characteristics by teacher behavior and by student outcome: a meta-analysis of research

Abstract: A meta-analysis was conducted of studies which addressed characteristics (gender, course-work, IQ, etc.) as the independent factor, and: (1) their teaching behavior in the classroom (questioning behavior, teaching orientation, etc.); and (2) student outcome characteristics (achievement, attitude toward science, etc.) as the two dependent factors. The population under study was science classes, ranging from kindergarten through twelfth grade, located in the United States, and the teachers of these classes. The studies integrated were reported in dissertations, journal articles, and other forms. Relationship data obtained from the studies were converted to Pearson product moment correlations. In general, quite low relationships were found between teacher background characteristics and (1) their touching behavior in the classroom and (2) student outcome characteristics. Summary tables showing the relationships are presented along with discussion of the strongest relationships.

The importance of terminology in teaching K-12 science

Abstract: Several recent reports concerning the status of science education in K-12 classrooms have emphasized the centrality of textbooks to instruction. Some initial investigations of the nature of textbooks have suggested that typically more new words and terms are introduced than one would expect to find in a similar time frame as foreign languages are studied. This is a review of these initial studies, a review of the studies of mastery of vocabulary in foreign languages, and a review of general research concerning the vocabulary development, especially as it pertains to reading. Twenty-five of the most commonly used textbooks in K-12 science classrooms are analyzed in terms of the occurrence of special/technical words. The number of words introduced at every level is considerable-often more than would be required if a new language were being introduced. In addition, the number of new words in science often approaches the total number that could be expected in terms of total vocabulary increase at a given grade level for a given student. There is strong evidence that one major fact of the current crisis in science education is the considerable emphasis upon words/terms/definitions as the primary ingredient of science-at least the science that a typical student encounters and that he/she is expected to master.

A comparison of actual and preferred classroom environments as perceived by science teachers and students

Abstract: This study of perceptions of classroom environment is distinctive in that, first, it made use of two instruments (the Individualized Classroom Environment Questionnaire and Classroom Environment Scale) which have had very little use in prior science education research and, second, it involved assessment not only of student perceptions of actual environment, but also of student perceptions of preferred environments and teacher perceptions of actual environment. Administration of these instruments to a sample of 2175 junior high school students in 116 classes revealed that the environment scales exhibited satisfactory internal consistency reliability and discriminant validity in each of the three forms (student actual, student preferred, and teacher actual), and that there were some fascinating systematic differences between the profiles of environment scale scores obtained for the different forms. In particular, it was generally found that students preferred a more favorable classroom environment then was perceived as being actually present and that teachers perceived the environment of their classes more favorably than did students in the same classrooms.

A meta-analysis of the effects of various science teaching strategies on achievement

Abstract: This study is a meta-analysis of the question “What are the effects on achievement of different teaching techniques?” Twelve categories of teaching techniques were specified. Among these are questioning, wait-time, testing, focusing, manipulative, presentation approach, inquiry or discovery, audio-visual, and teacher direction. A coding form was then developed to allow for the uniform examination and recording of 76 variables from each study. One or more effect sizes were calculated and coded for each study. Over 300 microfilmed dissertations covering the past 30 years were examined. Some 2000 ERIC science abstracts were reviewed and suitable studies obtained. Finally, journal articles were reviewed. A total of 400 effect sizes representing 160 studies were produced. The main effect size overall was 0.34. Thus, for all samples considered the experimental science teaching techniques on the average resulted in one-third of a standard deviation improvement over traditional techniques. Mean effect sizes also were calculated for each technique. More than 20 other variables such as class size, community type, and science subject area were cross-tabulated with effect size.

Predicting science achievement: The role of developmental level, disembedding ability, mental capacity, prior knowledge, and beliefs

Abstract: Controversy in the literature exists concerning the relative importance of cognitive characteristics such as general developmental level and specific prior knowledge for science achievement. Thus the relative ability of developmental level and prior knowledge to predict achievement of concepts of evolution and natural selection was assessed by means by three commonly used types of examination items: multiple choice items, a computational item, and an essay item. The effects of students' disembedding ability, mental capacity, and belief in evolution were also assessed. Disembedding ability, prior knowledge, and belief in evolution were found to be significantly related to overall achievement, while developmental level and mental capacity were not. However, developmental level was found to be the best predictor of performance on the computational item while belief in evolution and prior knowledge were found to be the best predictors of performance on the multiple-choice items. Mental capacity was found to be a predictor of performance on the essay item. It is argued that the cognitive variables influence different aspects of science achievement. Implications are discussed.

A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Science Achievement and Science Attitude: Kindergarten through College.

Abstract: A meta-analysis of research results for correlation between science achievement and attitude was conducted. Forty-three studies were utilized and 15 variables were coded for each correlation found in each study, yielding 280 coefficients. Overall relationship is moderate (0.16), with differences between elementary, junior high, senior high, and college subjects. Causal ordering results support achievement causing attitude in grades three to eight and mixed results thereafter. Sex differences exist through high school. Other effects are mixed across grade level.

The relationship of student characteristics and student performance in science as viewed by meta‐analysis research

Abstract: Relationships of student characteristics to student performance and attitudes were explored by meta-analysis for studies conducted in kindergarten through twelfth grade since 1960. Six student characteristics (general ability, language ability, mathematics ability, socio-economic status, gender, and race) were selected for inclusion in this investigation based on their frequency of use in the literature. Studies in which these student characteristics were associated with student science performance or science attitudes were included in this investigation. Associations of ability and socio-economic status with science performance and attitudes were summarized by correlational analysis. An effect size measure was used to summarize associations of gender and race with science performance and attitudes.

The effect of inquiry teaching and advance organizers upon student outcomes in science education

Abstract: Two areas of research were explored in this meta-analysis: comparison of inductive versus deductive teaching approachs, and the use of advance organizers. This study involved the coding of 128 characteristics for 39 studies which spanned the period from 1957 through 1980. The coding variables included 57 which were concerned with features of the treatment while 12 were concerned with outcome attributes. Aspects such as research methodology, sample characteristics, and instructional experiences were examined quantitatively in terms of their relationships to the treatment effects through the use of a common metric for all studies. Mean effect sizes were calculated and reported.

Thirty studies involving the “scientific attitude inventory”: What confidence can we have in this instrument?

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to show how conceptual analysis may be used to investigate the validity of a research instrument. The instrument chosen here, the Scientific Attitude Inventory (SAI), is by far the most popular of its type, yet the studies in which it has been used give reason to question its validity. Using the conceptual perspectives developed in the study, it is possible to show that many of the items which might be thought to tap attitudes can be interpreted quite differently. In this way, the discrepant results obtained by using the SAI in quantitative research can be explained. The report concludes that we can be less than certain of what is measured by the SAI, and that it needs reworking before it can be used with confidence. The report ends with some general concerns about attitude measurement and its place in science education research.

The Comparative Effects of Different Museum Tours on Children's Attitudes and Learning.

Abstract: Various studies contradict each other on the value of field trips and museum visits to improve learning and attitudes. This study concluded that students of grades, 5, 6, and 7 had significantly greater cognitive learning when they participated in a more structured tour, i.e., one led by a museum docent. Students of grades 5, 6, and 7, however, had significantly more positive attitudes when they participated in the less structured tour, i.e., one guided only by their classroom teacher. The study involved 816 students in 31 tours of the Natural History Gallery of the British Columbia Provincial Museum in Victoria.

Analyzing arguments in science classroom discourse: Can teachers' questions distort scientific authority?

Abstract: Teaching commonly involves asking questions, in sequences that enable a teacher to control the direction and duration of subject-matter discussion, while also maintaining attention and order. The form of questions and their role as means of instruction have received more study and discussion than the function of questions and their role in achieving particular ends of instruction. This study examines qualitatively the function of questions in developing arguments that establish scientific knowledge claims on the basis of reasons and evidence, and thereby suggest a rational attitude toward authority. Peters' (1966) distinction between a teacher's (rational) authority of knowledge and (traditional) authority of position is linked with Toulmin's (1958) pattern for rational arguments to establish a qualitative framework for judging the function of questions in arguments. Episodes from three science lessons are presented in verbatim transcription and analyzed to reveal three different ways in which teachers did not achieve the standard of suggesting a rational attitude toward authority. Question sequences such as these have a clear potential for distorting student understanding of the nature of scientific authority, with possible negative consequences for students' attitudes toward science.

The relationship between science process skill and formal thinking abilities

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to examine integrated process skill and formal thinking abilities of middle and high school students and determine the relationship, if any, between the two. A relationship was thought to exist since both sets of skills strongly emphasize conducting fair experiments as well as other abilities. Pencil and paper measures of formal operational and integrated process skill achievement were given to almost 500 grade 7–12 students. Resulting correlations showed a strong relationship between achievement on the two meansures (r = 0.73) and all subtests of both measures. Factor analysis data corroborate the correlational evidence. One potential inference to be drawn from these results is that process skill teaching might influence formal thinking ability. A follow-up experimental study will determine this.

Interaction of wait time feedback and questioning instruction on middle school science teaching

Abstract: Wait time, the duration of teacher pauses after questions, is an important variable in research on science teaching. This project investigated the effects of increasing teacher's wait times on general questioning skills in science teaching. In previous research, the influence of wait time training has been confounded with instruction in general questioning skills, making it difficult to test the hypothesis that increasing the wait time will by itself improve classroom discussions. In this project, these variables were separated through the use of four treatment groups made up of science teachers. One group received instruction in wait time using a newly developed electronic feedback device that monitors the duration of teacher and student pauses; a second group received instruction in general questioning skills; a third group received both types of instruction; a comparison group received no instruction of either type. The tape recordings were coded and analyzed for classroom interaction data. Comparisons were made using discriminant analysis, analyses of variance, and correlational relationships. The wait time feedback devices facilitated the production of wait time means consistently superior to baseline performance, albeit slightly below the 3-second criterion sought. Regardless, the feedback groups did produce a large number of the hypothesized changes. Significant effects were found from a comparison of the discriminant function scores. Effects consistently favored the groups with the feedback devices. The presence of the guides seemed to make little difference. The groups with the devices used greater numbers of high-level questions, especially those of the evaluative level. There were more contributions from students, as measured by length of answers, frequency of volunteered contributions, numbers of relevant student words, and percentages of student talk.

A meta‐analysis of instructional systems applied in science teaching

Abstract: This article is a report of a meta-analysis on the question: “What are the effects of different instructional systems used in science teaching?” The studies utilized in this meta-analysis were identified by a process that included a systematic screening of all dissertations completed in the field of science education since 1950, an ERIC search of the literature, a systematic screening of selected research journals, and the standard procedure of identifying potentially relevant studies through examination of the bibliographies of the studies reviewed. In all, the 130 studies coded gave rise to 341 effect sizes. The mean effect size produced over all systems was 0.10 with a standard deviation of 0.41, indicating that, on the average, an innovative teaching system in this sample produced one-tenth of a standard deviation better performance than traditional science teaching. Particular kinds of teaching systems, however, produced results that varied from this overall result. Mean effect sizes were also computed by year of publication, form of publication, grade level, and subject matter.

Facilitating Problem Solving in High School Chemistry.

Abstract: The major purpose for conducting this study was to determine whether certain instructional strategies were superior to others in teaching high school chemistry students problem solving. The effectiveness of four instructional strategies for teaching problem solving to students of various proportional reasoning ability, verbal and visual preference, and mathematics anxiety were compared in this aptitude by treatment interaction study. The strategies used were the factor-label method, analogies, diagrams, and proportionality. Six hundred and nine high school students in eight schools were randomly assigned to one of four teaching strategies within each classroom. Students used programmed booklets to study the mole concept, the gas laws, stoichiometry, and molarity. Problem-solving ability was measured by a series of immediate posttests, delayed posttests and the ACS-NSTA Examination in High School Chemistry. Results showed that mathematics anxiety is negatively correlated with science achievement and that problem solving is dependent on students' proportional reasoning ability. The factor-label method was found to be the most desirable method and proportionality the least desirable method for teaching the mole concept. However, the proportionality method was best for teaching the gas laws. Several second-order interactions were found to be significant when mathematics anxiety was one of the aptitudes involved.

The influence of classroom climate on science process and content achievement of community college students

Abstract: The effect of two specific classroom climates on learning of science process skills and content achievement in college level science classes was studied. Two classroom climates were established and designated as discovery classroom climate (DCC) and nondiscovery classroom climate (NDCC). The term discovery denotes the degree of freedom the teacher established in classroom interactions, both verbal and nonverbal. Verbal interactions were monitored with the Science Laboratory Interaction Categories. These data indicate that students in the two classroom climates achieved equally as well on learning of biological content of the course, but students in the discovery classroom climate achieved significantly higher scores in science process skills as measured by the Welch Science Process Inventory. This study, conducted in a large, suburban community college, offers some useful information to the person who has educational goals beyond, but including, the learning of science information and concepts, and possibly science process. Students in the less directive discovery climate learned as much content as those in a more directive comparison class-they lost nothing of what is traditionally sought in a college science class. In addition, the discovery climate facilitated the development of science process skills which were significantly better than the comparison class. A five-week intensive class using the discovery climate was found to provide as much content acquisition as the ten-week nondiscovery climate.

The Elementary Level Science Methods Course: Breeding Ground of an Apprehension toward Science? A Case Study.

Abstract: Ethnographic research methodologies were used to examine the training of elementary education majors in science in an attempt to gain insight on whether or not their training in science contributes to the apprehension elementary teachers have toward science. The field study consisted of 14 weeks of weekly observations in the elementary education majors science methods class. Interviews with the students and the instructors as well as survey instruments to assess students' preparation in science were used. Two different approaches to the study of science, one content oriented, the other process oriented, may contribute to the students' confusion, insecurity, and avoidance of science. The students' perception that science is learning content, an objective of introductory level science courses, and the science methods class's objectives of teaching science as a process sets up an “antagonistic dilemma” between the two. Such “antagonistic dilemma” may be manifest in the lack of instructional time accorded to science by elementary educators. The type of science experiences an individual encounters influences their perceptions. To offset student perceptions developed in science courses which stress principally content, the students need science experiences which truly represent science as inquiry. New strategies for the training of elementary education majors in science need to be examined.

Correlates of class attitude toward science

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships of students, teachers, and learning environment variables to science attitude. Data were collected from fourth, seventh, and ninth grade students and their science teachers. Variables found to be consistently related to science attitude of classes at all grade levels were (a) sense of the importance of science, (b) student fatalism, (c) teacher quality, and (d) a host of learning environment variables. Implications for teaching practices and for future research were offered.

A consolidation and appraisal of science meta-analyses

Abstract: This article is directed to consolidating information on selected matters reported in two or more of the separate meta-analysis reported in this issue of the Journal and examining the relationship between the results of these meta-analyses and other work of this nature reported in other places A high degree of consistency was found among the results of these various meta-analyses

The Group Dynamics Approach: A Sociopsychological Approach for Testing the Effect of Discovery and Expository Teaching on the Science Achievement and Attitude of Young Egyptian Students.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two instructional modes, discovery and expository, for teaching science knowledge, both application and recall, and science attitude to fifth-grade male and female Egyptian students. The population used for this study consisted of 276 fifth-grade students in two Egyptian schools. Twelve 45-min science classes meeting over a 21-day period made up the treatment period, with each of the two teachers instructing six of the 12 class periods for all eight subgroups of students. The results warrant the following conclusions: Fifth-grade Egyptian students taught by the discovery method scored higher in science achievement, both recall and application, than students taught by the expository method. Students taught by the discovery method scored higher in science attitude than students taught by the expository method. Female Egyptian students scored in science achievement and science attitude similar to males.

A meta‐analysis of research on science teacher education practices associated with inquiry strategy

Abstract: A meta-analysis was conducted of studies of teacher education having as measured outcomes one or more variables associated with inquiry teaching. Inquiry addresses those teacher behaviors that facilitate student acquisition of concepts and processes through strategies such as problem solving, uses of evidence, logical and analytical reasoning, clarification of values, and decision making. Studies which contained sufficient data for the calculation of an effect size were coded for 114 variables. These variables were divided into the following six major categories: study information and design characteristics, teacher and teacher trainee characteristics, student characteristics, treatment description, outcome description, and effect size calculation. A total of 68 studies resulting in 177 effect size calculations were coded. Mean effect sizes broken across selected variables were calculated.

Is it formal if it's not physics? (the influence of content on formal reasoning)

Abstract: Formal reasoning has been studied extensively with tasks that have physics or laboratory content. This study compares laboratory and naturalistic content influences on formal reasoning tasks. Ninety 13-, 15-, and 17-year olds received both laboratory and naturalistic content tasks which required ability to control variables. Expectations about the variables in each task were measured. Results revealed that 8 to 20% of the variance in performance was associated with task content. Content effects were shown to reflect expectations about task variables.

A framework for conceptualizing research in natural history museums and science centers

Abstract: Natural History Museums, Science Centers, Zoos, and Aquaria contribute considerably to out-of-school science experiences for visitors of all ages and characteristics. With birth rates and school age populations declining, it is likely that people will be looking to these settings for rest, recreation, stimulation, and learning. Science educators can play a leadership role in research, development, and in utilization of these settings to achieve learning and motivational objectives which support, supplement, and extend school science learning. But what is the current “state of the art” in this area? This article reviews relevant past studies, proposes a taxonomy of exhibits in museum settings, and focuses attention on factors which should be considered when studying learning in these settings. In addition, it presents some potentially productive methods of conceptualizing research, and suggests possible future lines of research for the science educator.

Effects of diagnostic/remedial instruction on science learning: A meta analysis

Abstract: The effects of diagnostic prescriptive instruction on learning has been the focus of many studies. The purpose of this article is to review and analyze the results of experimental studies based on diagnostic prescriptive instruction as it effects science achievement. Meta-analysis techniques were used to condense and synthesize the results of a multiple set of empirical studies into an interpretable form. The statistic calculated is referred to as “effect size.” This value is based upon the group means and standard deviations established from reported data of each individual study. An ERIC search identified a body of studies which examined a total of 30 dependent variables. Subjects used in the combined studies numbered over 500 college, high school, and middle school students. From this information an effect size was calculated on each dependent variable. Data were organized by categorizing all treatments into one of three types: (1) control, no diagnosis and no prescription: (2) Treatment I, diagnosis and no prescription: or (3) Treatment II, diagnosis and prescription or remediation. A mean effect size was then calculated for each treatment type. The results indicated that diagnostic prescriptive instruction significantly and positively influences science achievement. But there is no clear indication from the body of research that the use of prescription or remediation in addition to diagnosis brings about a significant additional increase in achievement.

An inquiry approach to science and language teaching

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of an inquiry approach to science and language teaching to further develop classification and oral communication skills of bilingual Mexican American third graders. A random sample consisting of 64 subjects was selected for experimental and control groups from a population of 120 bilingual Mexican American third graders. The Solomon Four-Group experimental design was employed. Pre- and posttesting was performed by use of the Goldstein-Sheerer Object Sorting Test, (GSOST) and the Test of Oral Communication Skills, (TOCS). The experimental group participated in a sequential series of science lessons which required manipulation of objects, exploration, peer interaction, and teacher-pupil interaction. The children made observations and comparisons of familiar objects and then grouped them on the basis of perceived and inferred attributes. Children worked individually and in small groups. Analysis of variance procedures was used on the posttest scores to determine if there was a significant improvement in classification and oral communication skills in the experimental group. The results on the posttest scores indicated a significant improvement at the 0.01 level for the experimental group in both classification and oral communication skills. It was concluded that participation in the science inquiry lessons facilitated the development of classification and oral communication skills of bilingual children.

An experimental study of a BSCS-style laboratory approach for university general biology

Abstract: A Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) inquiry approach for university general biology laboratory was tested experimentally against a well-established commercial program which was judged to be highly directive. The experimental approach made systematic use of science processes, development of concepts via questioning, and of requirements on the student to exercise discretion. Experimental group students scored similarly to comparison group students on a pretest of biological concepts, but scored significantly higher (p < 0.005) when the same test was given at the end of the semester.