Showing papers in "Language Learning in 1995"

Foreign accent, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in the speech of second language learners

Abstract: One of the chief goals of most second language learners is to be understood in their second language by a wide range of interlocutors in a variety of contexts. Although a nonnative accent can sometimes interfere with this goal, prior to the publication of this study, second language researchers and teachers alike were aware that an accent itself does not necessarily act as a communicative barrier. Nonetheless, there had been very little empirical investigation of how the presence of a nonnative accent affects intelligibility, and the notions of “heavy accent” and “low intelligibility” had often been confounded. Some of the key findings of the study—that even heavily accented speech is sometimes perfectly intelligible and that prosodic errors appear to be a more potent force in the loss of intelligibility than phonetic errors—added support to some common, but weakly substantiated beliefs. The study also provided a framework for a program of research to evaluate the ways in which such factors as intelligibility and comprehensibility are related to a number of other dimensions. The authors have extended and replicated the work begun in this study to include learners representing other L1 backgrounds (Cantonese, Japanese, Polish, Spanish) and different levels of learner proficiency, as well as other discourse types (Derwing & Munro, 1997; Munro & Derwing, 1995). Further support for the notion that accent itself should be regarded as a secondary concern was obtained in a study of processing difficulty (Munro & Derwing, 1995), which revealed that nonnative utterances tend to require more time to process than native-produced speech, but failed to indicate a relationship between strength of accent and processing time. The approach to L2 speech evaluation used in this study has also proved useful in investigations of the benefits of different methods of teaching of pronunciation to ESL learners. In particular, it is now clear that learner assessments are best carried out with attention to the multidimensional nature of L2 speech, rather than with a simple focus on global accentedness. It has been shown, for instance, that some pedagogical methods may be effective in improving intelligibility while others may have an effect only on accentedness (Derwing, Munro, & Wiebe,1998).

Attention, Memory, and the “Noticing” Hypothesis

Abstract: Schmidt (1990) claimed that consciousness, in the sense of awareness of the form of input at the level of “noticing”, is necessary to subsequent second language acquisition (SLA). This claim runs counter to Krashen's (1981) dualsystem hypothesis that SLA largely results from an unconscious “acquisition” system, the contribution of the conscious “learning” system to SLA being limited and peripheral. Important to a theory of SLA that allows a central role to the act of noticing is a specification of the nature of the attentional mechanisms involved, and of their relationship to current models of the organization of memory. With this in mind the present paper reviews current research into the nature of attention and memory and proposes a model of the relationship between them during SLA that, it is argued, is complementary to Schmidt's noticing hypothesis and oppositional to the dual-system hypothesis of Krashen. In light of this model, I argue that differential performance on implicit and explicit learning and memory experiments is caused by differences in the consciously regulated processing demands of training tasks and not by the activation of consciously and unconsciously accessed systems. I also argue that the attentional demands of pedagogical tasks and individual differences in memory and attentional capacity both affect the extent of noticing, thereby directly influencing SLA.

Task Complexity and Second Language Narrative Discourse

Abstract: Researchers need to identify what differences second language tasks set at different levels of complexity make to measures of learner language, in order to provide a basis for pedagogic decisions about grading and sequencing such tasks. This study examined differences in the production of oral narrative discourse by 12 adult second language learners of English on narrative tasks that simulated the ability to describe events in the Here-and-Now versus the There-and-Then. Target-like use, propositional and syntactic complexity, lexical load, pausing, and utterance length were measured under the two conditions. A MANOVA showed significant differences between the two conditions. Separate ANOVAs for each measure showed a significant difference between the two conditions for measures of lexical load and an almost significant difference for measures of target-like use. The more complex There-and-Then condition elicited greater accuracy and a higher ratio of lexical to grammatical words. There was also a trend suggesting greater utterance length for narratives performed under the simpler Here-and-Now condition. These results support the claim that complex tasks elicit less fluent, but more accurate and complex production than do simpler tasks.

Analyzing Talk in ESL Peer Response Groups: Stances, Functions, and Content

Abstract: This study analyzes the interaction during peer response as it occurs in an authentic writing class. Transcripts of 27 response groups are analyzed using the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to identify reader stances and determine the characteristics of these stances. We identified four categories of reader stances—authoritative, interpretive, probing, and collaborative. We then analyzed the language functions and topics discussed during the response sessions. This analysis reveals interesting differences across the four stances in five function categories (Summarize Essay, Express Intention, Give Suggestion, Give Opinion, and Give Information) and in three content categories (Writing Process, Ideas, and Audience and Purpose). We conclude that interactive peer response offers benefits to the students. However, in the probing and collaborative stances, the writer is encouraged to articulate the intended meaning of the text, thereby clarifying, expanding, and shaping meaning. These two stances therefore engage students in a fuller understanding of the writing process.

Second versus Third Language Acquisition: Is There a Difference?

Abstract: Previous research has investigated whether knowing more than one language will help adult learners acquire additional languages, with mixed results (e.g., Eisenstein, 1980; M. Thomas, 1990). It is questionable whether such enhancement, when it does exist, involves both the acquisition of lexical items and the acquisition of syntactic constructions. This study examined the latter question within a Universal Grammar (UG) parameter-setting model of acquisition, testing matched groups of 17 Unilingual (Ul) versus 15 Multilingual (Ml) adolescent high-school students acquiring English as a second versus third (or fourth) language, respectively. Participants were tested on their acquisition of: (a) specific verbs and their prepositional complements (lexical learning) and (b) preposition stranding (syntactic learning). The Mls outperformed the Uls in both types of acquisition, suggesting that qualities attributed to Mls, that is, heightened metalinguistic skills (J. Thomas, 1988, 1992), enhanced lexical knowledge (J. Thomas, 1988), and a less conservative learning procedure (Zobl, 1992), all help to trigger the setting of UG parameters.

L1 and L2 Writers' Strategic and Linguistic Knowledge: A Model of Multiple‐Level Discourse Processing

Abstract: This study compared the cognitive processing of 12 anglophone second-year French undergraduate students who were prompted to write an argumentative text in both L1 (English) and L2 (French). The students' speaking aloud protocols and textual drafts provided the basis of collected data. In the first part of the study, the writers' planning, evaluation, and revision strategies were (a) analyzed in terms of the pragmatic., textual, and linguistic manifestations of these processes and (b) compared for differences in processing behaviors between their L1 and L2 writing. In the second part, we measured linguistic processing occurrences to analyze their effect on more global processing behaviors at the pragmatic and textual levels. The linguistic constraints imposed by the writers' knowledge of the second language (French) point toward some significant differences in discourse level processing between L1 and L2 writing behaviors. However, the results reveal that the state of the writers' strategic knowledge and capacity for meaningful multiple-level discourse processing explains the constraining effects of linguistic processing on L2 written discourse production.

Eliciting Speech Act Data in Japanese: The Effect of Questionnaire Type

Abstract: Speech act theory has greatly influenced both the study and teaching of language use; however, given its philosophical roots, it has been short on empirical support. In recent years numerous speech act studies have been conducted. In these studies, though, there has been little discussion of research methodology, specifically data collection techniques. This paper reports the results of a study (based on Rose, 1994), which addresses methodological validation in speech act research. We administered discourse-completion tests (DCTs) and multiple-choice questionnaires (MCQs), designed to elicit requests, to two groups of 36 Japanese female undergraduates. As with Rose (1994), there were significant differences in most situations (11 of 12), with those completing the MCQ choosing to opt out or hint more frequently than those completing the DCT. These results seem to indicate some serious problems with DCTs, which need to be addressed if they are to be used in speech act studies.

Conversational Styles in Language Proficiency Interviews

Abstract: This study compares the conversational styles of intermediate and advanced learners of ESL in language proficiency interviews. Eleven intermediate learners and 12 advanced learners participated in a regular administration of the Cambridge First Certificate in English oral interview. I analyzed interview discourse constructed by both interviewer and nonnative speakers (NNSs), using a quantitative model of topical organization. I found differences in the amount of talk and rate of speaking (advanced learners talked more and faster than intermediate learners), in the extent of context dependence (advanced learners elaborated more in answers to questions), and in the ability to construct and sustain narratives (advanced learners did so, intermediate learners did not). There were no differences between the two groups in the frequency of initiation of new topics, nor in the reactivity to topics introduced by the interviewers. Interviewers did not vary in their interviewing style with the two groups. Some of these findings contradict what designers of language proficiency interviews claim to be proficiency-related differences between NNSs. The discrepancies may be due to the format of the interview and/or to differing expectations of the interview by interviewers and NNSs from different cultures.

The Development of Bilingual Memory: Evidence from Word Translation by Trilinguals.

Abstract: We investigated the relation between foreign-language proficiency and multilingual lexicosemantic organization, using two sets of 48 unbalanced Dutch-English-French trilingual adults as participants. Dutch was the participants' native language. Of their two foreign languages English was the strongest. We tested a developmental hypothesis that assumes a “word-association” lexical structure for the native language and a relatively weak foreign language, here French, but a “concept-mediation” structure for the native language and a stronger foreign language, here English. Support for the hypothesis derived from the participants' performance in two versions of the word-translation task: “translation production” and “translation recognition”. Translation was from Dutch to both of the foreign languages. The critical experimental manipulation was word concreteness. We hypothesized that a concept-mediation structure would predict an effect of this manipulation, whereas a word-association organization would not. In accordance with the developmental hypothesis, a clear concreteness effect obtained in Dutch to English translation, but not in Dutch to French translation. Overall, the data suggest that foreign-language proficiency indeed determines multilingual lexicosemantic organization.

Second Language Processing at Different Ages: Do Younger Learners Pay More Attention to Prosodic Cues to Sentence Structure?

Abstract: Seeking a processing explanation for the phonological merits of early age exposure to second language use, this study investigates the relationship between age of arrival in the L2 environment and a preference for prosodic versus syntactic cues to sentence interpretation in English. The learners were Cantonese-speaking ESL students at Canadian schools: 13 students in Grade 2,27 students in Grades 7/8, and 16 in Grades 11/12. All had been in Canada for between 1 and 4 years. The students were asked to interpret ambiguous sentences with conflicting prosodic and syntactic cues to structure. In contrast to the pattern found for native English-speaking students at the same grade levels, and contrary to predictions, the older ESL learners were found to be just as likely as the younger ones to attend to prosody rather than syntax.

Translation recognition and translation production: Comparing a new and an old tool in the study of bilingualism

Abstract: This study explored the “translation-recognition” task. Each trial in this task presents a word pair, one word in L1, the second in L2. The participant has to decide whether or not the words within a pair are translations of one another. Performance is compared with that in translation production, where on each trial the participant has to come up with the translation of the presented word. The results of two experiments, one for 40 adult Dutch learners of English and the second for 80 people from the same population, suggest that translation recognition and translation production generally respond to the same manipulations. An exception to this pattern emerges when cognates and noncognates are focused on separately. With noncognate materials translation production from L1 to L2 shows a larger role of semantic variables than both translation production from L2 to L1 and translation recognition. Whether within the recognition task cognates and noncognates are presented mixed or blocked, and whether the nontranslation pairs consist of perceptually similar or dissimilar words, or both, do not affect the actual translation-retrieval process.

Error Gravity: A Critical Review of Research Design.

Abstract: This paper examines error gravity research design and its theoretical assumptions. Based on an analysis of 28 errorgravity investigations (1977–1995), we study several aspects of error gravity research design (including, e.g., the authenticity of language sample), and theoretical constructs (such as the definition of “error”). The study demonstrates that investigators have only skimmed the surface of the process of error evaluation, which is undoubtedly shaped by extralinguistic factors. We conclude that researchers should reconceptualize error gravity research and should reassess earlier studies to confirm or disaffirm their stated outcomes.

Acquisition of Base-Generated Topics by English-Speaking Learners of Chinese.

Abstract: This study investigated the acquisition of base-generated topics in Mandarin Chinese by 102 British university students learning Chinese as a second language. Chinese differs from English in that in Chinese the topic can be base-generated, whereas in English it has to go through the process of movement. The hypothesis was that it would not be difficult for English speakers to acquire the base-generated topic in Chinese because in the acquisition of Chinese, English-speaking learners are exposed to positive evidence of base-generated topics. However, this hypothesis was not confirmed; the learners acquired the base-generated topics quite late. The difficulty the learners had in acquiring the base-generated topic in Chinese could be due to a combination of several factors. The learners at elementary, intermediate, and higher-intermediate stages may have adopted an incorrect parsing strategy in processing sentences with base-generated topics. This incorrect parsing strategy diminished the triggering effect of the positive evidence for CP projection, absent at the initial state of the L2 acquisition of Chinese. In addition, there is misleading evidence in the learners' input data in support of the learners' adoption of the incorrect parsing strategy, which further delays the acquisition of the base-generated topic in Chinese.

A contextualized approach to describing oral language proficiency

Abstract: Although both raters and elicitation tasks are principal factors influencing the study of learners' second language L2) oral proficiency, the effect of each has always been investigated separately; consequently, any possible relationship between them remains unexplored. In investigating the L2 oral proficiency construct, the present study incorporated a variety of tasks and diverse rater groups. The tasks encompassed an interview, a narration, and a read-aloud. The rater groups, all NSs of Arabic, included 15 teachers in the US, 3 nonteaching raters residing in the US, and 36 nonteaching raters living in Lebanon. Using multidimensional scaling analyses, I derived dimensions underlying raters' holistic ratings of 6 learners' L2 oral proficiency on each of the three tasks. In addition, I specified the salience of the derived dimensions for each of the three rater groups. The results show that the nature of the L2 oral construct is not constant. Different weighted dimensions emerged when investigating the various tasks and rater groups. I concluded that proficiency researchers should not employ generic dimensions; dimensions should be empirically derived according to the specific elicitation task and audience.

Reconsidering the Role of Interaction and Input in Second Language Acquisition

Abstract: This article reviews the findings of research on second language (L2) interaction from the perspective of L2 syntactic development. Previous studies provide us with a broad view of the grammatical nature of interaction. However, they have not revealed how interaction affects grammatical development, nor have they considered the specific relation between interactional structure and grammatical structure. I argue that in order to better understand the role of negotiated interaction in L2 syntactic development, it is necessary to examine the specific grammatical structures in interaction guided by the criteria of relevance, availability, accessibility, and effect. By examining interaction from a more focused perspective, that is, Universal Grammar triggers, one can ask precise questions about the grammatical characteristics of interaction and can make very specific recommendations about further study. More fine-tuned grammatical measures are needed to understand the grammatical characteristics of interaction and their effects on L2 syntactic development.

Interlanguage Dissimilarity Enhances the Decline of Thinking Ability During Foreign Language Processing

Abstract: This study tested a hypothesis that the “foreign language effect” is larger when similarity between a foreign language and a native language is less. Foreign language effect refers to a temporary decline of thinking ability during foreign language processing, a decline that is distinguished from foreign language processing difficulty per se. In the first of two divided-attention experiments, we compared 16 adult native speakers of German and 16 of Japanese given English as a common foreign language; in the second, we compared 16 adult native speakers of Korean and 16 of English given Japanese as a common foreign language. The participants performed a thinking task (addition) and a linguistic task (question-answering) in parallel. The thinking task contained no foreign language; the linguistic task was presented in either the native language or the foreign language. In accordance with the hypothesis, the foreign language effect (denned by lower performance in the thinking task when the linguistic task was in the foreign language) was larger in both cases for those whose native language was less similar to the common foreign language.

Semantic Differentiation in the Acquisition of English as a Second Language.

Abstract: I analyzed the mental organizations of two sets of fuzzy lexical items by 70 native speakers (NSs) of English and 185 learners of English as a second language (ESL). They provided pair-wise comparisons of a set of degree adverbs and a set offrequency terms, respectively. I subjected their judgments to unidimensional scaling and circular triad analysis, which indicated that: (a) despite their apparent familiarity with the items, ESL learners' semantic organizations deviated from the NSs' model; (b) the location and extent of semantic mismatch can be identified at different levels of ESL proficiency; (c) consistent approximation to the target model improved as ESL proficiency improves; (d) the structural stability of an individual's private semantic model is not readily generalizable between sets of lexical items or levels of proficiency; and (el consensus among ESL learners improves as proficiency increases. The findings suggest that a discernible approximative pattern exists in the acquisition of ESL semantics, with the differentiation of certain words acquired before the differentiation of others.

When the Interpretation Does Not Fit the Facts, Alter the Facts, Not the Interpretation! A Comment on Pulvermuller and Schumann (1994).

Abstract: Les As. repondent a un article de Pulvermuller et Schumann (1994) sur les mecanismes neurobiologiques de l'acquisition des langues. Le but est de mettre en evidence le caractere errone de l'affirmation selon laquelle la region perisylvienne est essentielle dans l'acquisition de la langue maternelle et les aires cerebrales plus eloignees de la scissure de Sylvius plus importantes dans l'acquisition de la langue seconde