Showing papers in "Leadership & Organization Development Journal in 1998"

Managing at the Speed of Change

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Transformational leadership and learning orientation

Abstract: States that two goal orientations may be held by individuals: a performance goal and a learning goal (Ames and Archer, 1988; Dweck and Leggett, 1988). The much‐discussed learning organisation requires individuals either to possess or to develop a learning orientation. Leadership theorists (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) have identified characteristics of leadership which may be classified as transactional or transformational. The links between leadership and goal orientation are explored. It was conjectured that transformational leadership would be associated with a learning‐goal orientation and transactional leadership would be associated with a performance‐goal orientation. These propositions are supported by evidence from an empirical study of professional accountants in the UK. The findings suggest that desirable leadership behaviour for a learning organisation is transformational and desirable follower behaviour should include a learning orientation.

Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and intervention

Abstract: This article deals basically with the dynamic environment of today’s businesses. Despite all of the efforts a company puts forth to scan the environmental issues, crises can occur and have to be managed. We have first reviewed several crises in businesses during the recent times, to define and identify the nature of a crisis. Then the anatomy of a crisis is presented schematically. Finally, by recommending certain preventive measures and interventions, the article concludes that acknowledging a crisis and communicating with the stakeholders are as important as planning the prevention, diagnosis, and intervention to solve crisis situations.

An integrated model and approach for the design of effective leadership development programs

Abstract: Leadership has been a major topic in management and business literature over the last few years. The rapid changes in business, technology, political and social factors has required the development of effective leadership skills. As a result leadership development programs have become an increasing priority for business and government organisations. This article puts forward an integrated model for leadership development. The major focus of this model is to develop leadership competencies which directly contribute to the strategic imperatives of the business. In addition, it describes the key elements that contribute to a successful leadership experience such as changing mindsets, a global focus, personal development and improved business and leadership skills. Finally, the most widely used leadership methods and processes are covered under three major themes; contributing to the strategic business direction, building leadership and team skills, and self‐development. The ideas put forward in this paper provide senior managers and human resource professionals with an integrated and comprehensive framework to plan and build a leadership development program in their organisation.

Change and employee behaviour

Abstract: In this study the relationship between perceived change implementation in an organization is related to employee self‐rated behaviour. The change implementation processes measured were communication, support and participation. The relationship between these processes and employee behaviour was examined by testing a theoretical model, in which two mediating concepts are used: the psychological contract and employee job attitudes. The research was carried out in two main divisions of a large telecommunications firm on a sample of 220 employees. The theoretical model (perceived change implementation influencing the psychological contract, influencing employee attitudes, influencing employee behaviour) had a better fit with the data, compared to alternative models.

Emotional dissonance in organizations: a conceptualization of consequences, mediators and moderators

Abstract: Presents a model conceptualizing the role of emotional dissonance in organizational behavior. Emotional dissonance is a form of person‐role conflict originating from the conflict between expressed and experienced emotions. Viewed within a contingency framework, the effect of emotional dissonance on its direct consequences of job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion may vary in their intensity depending on the existence (or lack thereof) of moderators and mediators. The study presents nine propositions hypothesizing the impact of these variables to guide future empirical research. As moderators, high levels of self‐monitoring, social support and trait self‐esteem may reduce the deleterious impact of emotional dissonance on job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Alternatively, emotional dissonance may induce job tension and state negative affectivity, and reduce state self‐esteem, which in turn, lead to job dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Theoretical and a few practical implications are discussed.

Selecting expatriate managers: key traits and competencies

Abstract: Selecting expatriate managers for an international assignment has been hindered not just by a lack of empirical studies testing construct predictors, but more importantly, by a lack of clearly defined traits and competencies that can, in the first place, be introduced as construct predictors of success. This lack of clarity is largely owing to small variations in semantic differences in describing success factors rather than any conceptual differences in the factors themselves. This review article makes the distinction between stable personality factors, and core behavioural competencies in the development of construct predictors based on recurrent themes within the literature. Three personality attributes of low neuroticism, moderate extroversion, and high openness to experience, and four core expatriate competencies of relational ability, cultural sensitivity, linguistic skill, and ability to handle stress, are identified as crucial selector variables over and above factors typically taken into account in a domestic selection decision.

Correlates of perceived leadership style in a culturally mixed environment

Abstract: This study is concerned with the determination of the most common and effective leadership style in a non‐Western culturally mixed environment, and with the exploration of the correlates of leadership style in such a context. Results indicate that consultative style was the most common and effective leadership style in such an environment. Furthermore, findings indicate that leaders’ personal attributes such as national culture, experience, education and age; subordinates’ personal attributes such as gender, national culture, age and tenure in present organization and organizational factors such as the organization’s ownership have a significant relationship with leadership style. Additionally, leaders’ personal attributes such as gender, marital status and tenure in present organization, and subordinates’ personal attributes such as education, experience and marital status, in addition to organizational factors such as the organization’s activity and age have no relationship with leadership style.

Predictors of decision‐making styles in a non‐western country

Abstract: This study focuses primarily on exploring the role of organizational culture and level of technology used in the organization as predictors of decision‐making styles in a non‐western country, the United Arab Emirates. Results suggest that organizational culture, and level of technology used in the organization in addition to decision‐maker’s education and management levels are good predictors of decision‐making styles in such an environment. Results also indicate that a tendency towards the participative style prevails among Arab, young, middle management and highly educated managers.

Culture, innovation and successful development of new medicines ‐ an exploratory study of the pharmaceutical industry

Abstract: Reports on a pilot study carried out to investigate methods for determining corporate culture in the pharmaceutical industry and its effect on innovation and development of new medicines. The results showed that it is possible to use a questionnaire‐based approach for this type of investigation to demonstrate cultural differences between companies and between departments. Furthermore, the results could be related to factors most suited to fast development and to innovation.

Facilitating problem‐solving groups: facilitator competences

Abstract: Group and team meetings are important organisational processes. These teams, therefore, should be managed and supported appropriately in order to produce effective outcomes. One method of undertaking this is to use skilled and competent facilitators. Facilitators not only support the meeting process but they should also be actively involved before and after the meeting has taken place in order to help develop objectives, timescales, agendas and so on. It is important, therefore, that organisations either train their own facilitators or employ external facilitators with the necessary and appropriate competences. This paper describes what competences may be required by a facilitator and how these can be used effectively.

The collective culture shock in transition countries ‐ theoretical and empirical implications

Abstract: Individual culture shock is a well known and evidenced phenomenon. It describes the psychological and also physical reactions of a person staying abroad. These reactions are the result of confrontation with a foreign culture. According to the authors such reactions also exist on the level of society as a whole. This “collective culture shock” influences management and business relations and causes problems. A theory of the collective culture shock is developed that analyses these problems and provides a framework for solutions. This theory suggests that cultural processes and features in transition countries that are usually attributed to the communist heritage are the result of collective culture shock.

The practice of consultancy and a professional development strategy

Abstract: There is a paucity of information on the development and practice of consultancy. This paper seeks to fill in some of the gaps in knowledge particularly in relation to the nature of consultancy, market opportunities management and practice development. The paper commences with a discussion on the role of the consultant and moves on to examine why organisations use consultants. Thereafter attention is devoted to the market opportunities and discusses how business is developed. Reference is made to a number of writers and their views are integrated into the discussions, particularly where they cite reasons as to how business was obtained. A model which originated in the USA is developed in relation to the management of assignments and a claim is made as to essential “task processes”. In conclusion, recommendations are made as to practice development strategy and a five‐stage model, developed by the authors, is suggested.

Facilitating problem‐solving groups: a conceptual model

Abstract: Groups are an integral part of organisational life. It is important, therefore, that these teams are managed both efficiently and effectively. One method of undertaking this process is to employ skilled facilitators who can support and direct the group’s processes. This paper discusses a method of facilitation that not only will help a problem‐solving group to remain structured and focused but will also help to encourage creative thought and output. A conceptual model has been developed which managers can use as a handy checklist or reference while undertaking the process of facilitation.

Structured empowerment: an award‐winning program at the Burswood Resort Hotel

Abstract: In recent years, organizations have identified the benefits of employee empowerment programs: empowered employees are able to solve customer and organizational problems promptly and professionally. The management at the Burswood Resort Hotel in Western Australia recognized that they wanted to develop these qualities in their employees and embarked on an empowerment program. Management acknowledged that achieving an empowered workplace was a long‐term initiative requiring continued management commitment. Their approach was based on management theory and practice, yet remained flexible to the needs of the hotel’s employees and customers. A program was designed and was tailored to the hotel’s culture and work environment. An empowerment survey was conducted prior to the program and again 18 months after its initiation. This article describes the organization’s experience of introducing empowerment into a traditionally‐structured workplace; explains its success; some of the problems encountered and the effect of a recent merger on the progress of the program.

Leading radical change in transition economies

Abstract: New managers in central and east European companies were faced with daunting challenges to manage their companies through the transition from central planning to competition and to change their companies radically so that their firms would be capable of competing effectively. Based on the analysis of six longitudinal company cases from the Czech Republic, I identify the key skills that new managers had to have and where they were able to obtain those skills. The seeds of current managerial expertise could often be found in experiences under central planning, despite the fact that central planning more generally rewarded behaviors that were counterproductive in market‐based competition. Results are discussed in the context of leading radical organizational change.

Leaders developing leaders: an effective way to enhance leadership development programs

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to examine how senior leaders in organizations can play a greater role in the development of leadership within their organizations. Innovative “leaders developing leaders” programs in PepsiCo, General Electric and Shell are described as examples of tangible and effective ways that can be used for successful leadership development which can also contribute to strategic change and business profitability. Suggestions and various options to incorporate senior executive involvement in leadership development programs are put forward as well as factors that need to be considered when first implementing this approach. At a time when leadership development is recognised as a vital ingredient for organization success, the involvement of senior leaders in the teaching and learning of future leaders has been shown to be a powerful and effective tool.

Managing employees in China from Hong Kong : interaction, relationships and productivity as antecedents to motivation

Abstract: States that managers must often try to motivate employees working in another country. Senior accounting managers in Hong Kong were interviewed on their experiences leading professionals in China. Results of structural equation analyses suggest the usefulness of Deutsch’s theory of co‐operation and competition to understanding how interaction between leaders and employees develops future motivation. Co‐operative goals were found to contribute to a constructive discussion of opposing views between managers and employees which, in turn, resulted in productive work and stronger work relationships; these outcomes, in turn, developed motivation to work hard and well on future assignments. These results were interpreted as suggesting that managers can motivate employees through developing strong co‐operative goals and the skills of constructive controversy.

Technical note: A study of Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory

Abstract: This study empirically tested Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory (SLT) among 151 senior executives within service and manufacturing businesses of a large Fortune 100 company. SLT focuses on the interaction of the leader’s behaviour and follower readiness to determine leader effectiveness. SLT suggests that the appropriate level of task and relationship behaviour is the one that “matches” the level of follower readiness. A variety of statistical techniques were used to test the central hypotheses of SLT and the matching concept. The study produced 18 matches and 126 mismatches. One statistical technique, the partitioned test, was found to provide the most insight about SLT and the concept of matching. The researchers recommend its utilization in future research of SLT. The researchers conclude that SLT remains intuitively appealing and empirically contradictory. The concepts of SLT and matching are engaging and further research is recommended.

Do process consultants need different skills when working with nonprofits

Abstract: The current challenges facing nonprofit organizations in developed countries are clarification of mission and values, strengthening the structure and improving systems of accountability. Increasingly, senior executives are engaging external process consultants to assist with the process of change in these areas. The paper reports on research into the activities and skills of consultants to determine whether or not the requirements of nonprofit organizations differ from those of business sector organizations. Over 50 experienced consultants participating in a process‐oriented change program were surveyed for their views. Of the 29 who responded, most agreed that there were differences between the sectors. They nominated 57 activities they were “more likely to be involved in” and 72 skills they were “more likely to draw on” in nonprofit organizations. The possible reasons for intersectoral differences are discussed. The paper concludes with implications for consultancy practice and for nonprofit organizations employing process consultants.

Leadership as an exercise in virtual reality

Abstract: Understanding the essential truth about what leadership is, is not easy. The problem is that each person sees leadership through the lens of his or her unique virtual reality. We each interpret the world and major ideas like leadership from a mind‐set that seems real and logical to us, but ignores or discounts other equally (maybe even more) logical perspectives. This paper explores alternative leadership realities. It concludes that most of us must progress through each of five leadership virtual environments before we can sense the full meaning of leadership.

Cross‐cultural attitudes towards leadership dimensions

Abstract: The current trend among corporations to clearly identify management behavioural competencies, that would enable managers to perform more effectively, has led to many developing what are apparently the dimensions of effective management and leadership behaviour. There are many problems with this overly simplistic approach, one of which is the transferability of the definitions of competencies across cultures. In this paper, 138 middle managers were studied from a North American telecommunications corporation. They were asked to comment on the various dimensions of the overall competence “leadership”, as it was defined by the corporation’s human resource development group. It was found that there was little broad cross‐cultural agreement on these dimensions among the managers surveyed which points to the difficulty, and indeed, validity, of attempts to develop generic, global management competencies. The paper suggests that MNCs are “colonisers” through their attempts to shape the behaviour of local personnel in the context of competencies.

Sustainable learning and change in international teams: from imperceptible behaviour to rigorous practice

Abstract: This paper outlines the authors’ experience of working with international cross‐cultural teams, and is an attempt to address the question about how international organizations can give rise to a sustainable capability in which generations of teams build on each other’s experience. The paper outlines some of the behavioural dynamics, both constructive and destructive that seem to occur in international teams, and focuses on ways of working through the destructive dynamics. The paper suggests that sustainable learning can happen when organizations and teams engage with the “cultural whirlpool” that their internal diversity creates; when they maintain ongoing cross‐cultural conversations which bring cultural differences and understandings alive; and where they engage with the strategic moments that are afforded by their emotional and relational dynamics.

Utilizing organizational culture gap analysis to determine human resource development needs

Abstract: The effectiveness of the Competing Values Framework (CVF) as a means to determine human resource development needs was examined. Members of the board of directors and all full‐time employees of a Cooperative assessed the current status of the organizational culture and the nature of culture desired in the future utilizing a CVF based instrument. Both groups desired a future culture different from the present state, and both groups desired movement in the same directions. The study concludes that CVF analysis is a beneficial means for determining information about human resource skills needing to be developed and/or activated and which activities need to be rewarded or reduced in order to effect this movement.

Alignment and strategic change: a challenge for marketing and human resources

Abstract: Alignment is a key aspect of strategic change. Alignment between customers and employees is a critical component. Two functional areas ‐ marketing and human resources ‐ are well positioned to play important roles in the alignment process, and they share similar methods. But in most organizations they are often not linked. The authors argue for leadership to overcome the functional barriers, avoid duplicate effort and gain fuller utilization of potential. They present a model for the alignment process and a set of tools to analyze alignment gaps and facilitate the cross‐functional linkage. The efficacy of the tools is illustrated by case examples. At the same time, the authors caution that continuously building alignment is more akin to a trek than a sprint.

“Consultancy fatigue”: epidemiology, symptoms and prevention

Abstract: This paper examines a phenomenon increasingly evident among senior management and officials within Central and Eastern European commercial and governmental organisations. The term “consultancy fatigue” coined in a Tacis report describes a sense of weariness, frustration, and cynicism about the activities of Western consultants in countries served by Tacis programmes. This “syndrome” contributes to problems in the quality and effectiveness of Western consultancy initiatives. The key points drawn from a survey of the literature are borne out by a research project, based on case studies currently under way, into the effectiveness of Western management knowledge transfer into Russia. The paper identifies the ways in which the interplay between the attitudinal sets of Russian top managers, and consultants’ behaviours, creates disillusionment and disappointment. The conclusion is that consultancy fatigue cannot be eradicated, but its worst effects can be mitigated by measures which are offered as guidelines towards the end of the paper.

Leadership for socially responsible organizations

Abstract: This article addresses how for‐profit organizational management and leadership considers social responsibility. It is argued in this article that managers and leaders self‐define their personal and organizational missions in holistic integrative ways or in ways that particularize and isolate their organizations from the wider societal context. This is discussed in the context of the paradigms that traditional managers and leaders use in business and commercial organizations. A companion article will continue the discussion of leadership and organization paradigms in the contexts of language and power in a subsequent issue.

Regrounding the concept of leadership

Abstract: Reports the initial exploratory studies in a programme of research that aims to investigate the role of mental models in leadership. Drawing from a cognitive approach, the studies use metaphors as tools to illustrate the models of the leadership construct that are prevalent in lay psychology in an atheoretical, decontextualised manner. The findings show that lay concepts of leadership are less complex and more robust than academic concepts. Implications for both research and the transfer of knowledge to industry are discussed.

When formal ethics policies differ from informal expectations: a test of managers’ attitudes

Abstract: This study explores the relationship between conflicting ethical expectations and managerial attitudes. Using a sample of 107 managerial level employees, the findings indicate that as the perceived difference between formal and informal ethical expectations increases, intentions to turnover increase and job satisfaction, organizational satisfaction, and affective commitment decrease.

Uniform change: an ethnography on organizational symbolism, volunteer motivation and dysfunctional change in a paramilitary organization

Abstract: The United States Air Force’s (USAF) unpaid civilian auxiliary, the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) wears USAF uniforms and performs search and rescue missions looking for downed aircraft. After CAP members miswore the USAF uniform (Cheng, 1996), the USAF instituted a top‐down uniform change making the CAP uniform more distinct from the USAF uniform. CAP members, who affirmed that they were to be motivated solely by a desire to perform CAP’s mission, and not motivated by wearing USAF uniforms, quit and withdrew commitment. This participant observation ethnography studies how USAF’s misunderstanding of volunteer motivation and the symbolism of organizational uniforms led to dysfunctional organizational change. An alternative solution that makes positive symbolic change is proposed.