Showing papers in "PLOS water in 2022"

Over the weekend: Water stagnation and contaminant exceedances in a green office building

Abstract: The role of water stagnation (~60 hours) in a 2-story commercial office building on building water quality was studied (January to February 2020) for three weekends. Chemical and biological parameters including pH, total chlorine, metals concentrations, Legionella spp. and total cell count were analyzed to understand the differences in water quality at the building entry point, and at eleven fixtures within the building’s copper plumbing. Consistently, the total chlorine concentration decreased over the weekend (p < 0.05), was greatest at the building entry point (maximum 0.8 mg/L), and was lowest within the plumbing (maximum 0.28 mg/L). As expected, total cell count levels were much greater on Monday compared to Friday (p < 0.05) at every sampling point. Legionella spp. was found to be highest at the fixture with no use recorded during sampling. Throughout the building, copper and lead levels increased over the weekend (p < 0.05). Copper exceedances above the federal health-based drinking water limit (1.3 mg/L) were localized to four fixtures, branched from the same riser, that shared a pattern of variable use. Flushing was conducted at one location with consistent copper exceedances but 54 minutes were required to reach the public water supply. Flushing was not a viable copper remediation method as it would need to be repeated every 19 hours or require discarding more than 50 gallons before use. No prior water testing was conducted in the buildings’ life. The results suggest that water quality varies significantly over the week. This has implications for water testing plans and interpretation of data collected from buildings.

Operationalizing a routine wastewater monitoring laboratory for SARS-CoV-2

Abstract: Wastewater-based testing for SARS-CoV-2 is a novel tool for public health monitoring, but additional laboratory capacity is needed to provide routine monitoring at all locations where it has the potential to be useful. Few standardization practices for SARS-CoV-2 wastewater analysis currently exist, and quality assurance/quality control procedures may vary across laboratories. Alongside counterparts at many academic institutions, we built out a laboratory for routine monitoring of wastewater at the University of California, Berkeley. Here, we detail our group’s establishment of a wastewater testing laboratory including standard operating procedures, laboratory buildout and workflow, and a quality assurance plan. We present a complete data analysis pipeline and quality scoring framework and discuss the data reporting process. We hope that this information will aid others at research institutions, public health departments, and wastewater agencies in developing programs to support wastewater monitoring for public health decision-making.

Water, sanitation, and women’s empowerment: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis

Abstract: Historically, water and sanitation programs have focused on women’s instrumental value in improving conditions and behaviors. No reviews have synthesized evidence on water and sanitation and women’s and girls’ empowerment. This review a) identified empirical water and sanitation research that engaged empowerment and/or empowerment-related domains; b) reported empowerment-related terminology used, research locations, methods leveraged, if water and/or sanitation was the focus; and c) synthesized evidence. A conceptual model of women’s and girls’ empowerment, which includes three interrelated domains (agency, resources, institutional structures), informed the search and analysis. We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CABI Global Health, PsycINFO, CINAHL and AGRICOLA for peer-reviewed sources presenting research on water and/or sanitation and either empowerment and/or related terms from the model (4 May 2020). We identified 12,616 publications; 257 were included, representing over 1,600,000 participants. We used the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) and followed the ‘best-fit framework synthesis’ analysis approach, using the model domains and sub-domains as codes. We inductively identified two additional sub-domains relevant to water and sanitation: privacy and freedom of movement. Thematic analysis guided synthesis of coded text. The majority of research took place in Asia (46%; 117) or Africa (40%; 102), engaged adults (69%; 177), and was published since 2010; (82%; 211). The greatest proportion of studies focused on water (45%; 115). Over half of studies used the term empowerment, yet only 7% (17) provided a clear definition or conceptualization. Agency was the least commonly engaged domain (47%; 122); the Resources domain was dominant (94%; 241). Measures for assessing empowerment are limited. Inclusion of only peer-reviewed sources in English is a main limitation. Well-conceptualized water and sanitation research that engages women’s and girls’ empowerment is limited. A more comprehensive ‘transformative WASH’ that includes gender-transformative approaches to challenge and reduce systemic constraints on women’s and girls’ resources and agency is long overdue.

A bias correction method for precipitation through recognizing mesoscale precipitation systems corresponding to weather conditions

Abstract: Accurate estimations of local precipitation are necessary for assessing water resources and water-related disaster risks. Numerical models are typically used to estimate precipitation, but biases can result from insufficient resolution and incomplete physical processes. To correct these biases, various bias correction methods have been developed. Recently, bias correction methods using machine learning have been developed for improved performance. However, estimating local hourly precipitation characteristics remains difficult due to the nonlinearity of precipitation. Here, we focused on precipitation systems that could be reproduced by numerical models, and estimated the spatial distribution of local precipitation by recognizing the relationship between simulated and observed precipitation with a resolution of 0.06 degrees using a machine learning method. We subsequently applied a quantile mapping method to modify the precipitation amounts. Validation showed that our method could significantly reduce bias in numerical simulations, especially the spatial distribution of hourly precipitation frequency. However, the bias in the temporal distribution of hourly precipitation did not improve. Spatial autocorrelation analysis showed that this method can predict precipitation systems with spatial scales of 2500 to 40000 km2, which are associated with large-scale disturbances (e.g., cold fronts, warm fronts, and low-pressure systems). The high accuracy of these estimates indicates that the spatial distribution of hourly precipitation frequency is strongly dependent on precipitation systems with these spatial scales. Accordingly, our method shows that the relationship between the spatial distribution of precipitation systems and local precipitation is strong, and by recognizing this relationship, the spatial distribution of local hourly precipitation can be accurately estimated.

Field performance of the GaugeCam image-based water level measurement system

Abstract: Image-based stage and discharge measuring systems are among the most promising new non-contact technologies available for long-term hydrological monitoring. This article evaluates and reports the long-term performance of the GaugeCam (www.gaugecam.org) image-based stage measuring system in situ. For this we installed and evaluated the system over several months in a tidal marsh to obtain a good stratification of the measured stages. Our evaluation shows that the GaugeCam system was able to measure within about ±5 mm for a 90% confidence interval over a range of about 1 m in a tidal creek in a remote location of North Carolina, USA. Our results show that the GaugeCam system nearly performed to the desired design of ±3 mm accuracy around 70% of the time. The system uses a dedicated target background for calibration and geometrical perspective correction of images, as well as auto-correction to compensate for camera movement. The correction systems performed well overall, although our results show a ‘croissant-shaped’ mean error (-1 to +4 mm,) varying with water stage. We attribute this to the small, yet present, ‘fish-eye’ effect embedded in images, for which our system did not entirely correct in the tested version, and which might affect all image-based water level measurement systems.

‘You feel how you look’: Exploring the impacts of unmet water, sanitation, and hygiene needs among rural people experiencing homelessness and their intersection with drug use

Abstract: Existing literature attests to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) inequities among people experiencing homelessness (PEH) in the United States, but there is a dearth of research on such issues in rural areas. Homelessness is an emerging public health concern in rural areas where homelessness is on the rise, infectious disease outbreaks are becoming increasingly common, and PEH face unique WASH-related challenges compared to their urban counterparts. We conducted an exploratory study to understand the impacts of unmet WASH needs among rural PEH and their intersection with drug use through in-depth interviews (n = 10). Eligible participants were 18 years or older, lived in one of five Central Appalachian counties, and had experienced homelessness in the previous six months. Using thematic analysis, we identified factors that inhibit WASH access, and adverse health and well-being outcomes that result from unmet WASH needs. We also explore how WASH experiences compare among rural PEH who self-reported drug use to those who did not. Our findings revealed that factors at multiple levels inhibited WASH access, including stigma and place-based characteristics, which contributed to the adverse physical, mental, and emotional health of PEH. Comparisons between PEH who used drugs to those that did not revealed the intricate relationship between WASH, homelessness, and substance use in communities impacted by the opioid epidemic. Expanded WASH facilities that are safe and available with no prerequisites can address inadequate access among rural PEH and collaboration with harm reduction services may be advantageous to reach those who inject drugs.

Advances on water quality modeling in burned areas: A review

Abstract: Wildfires are a recurring hazard in forested catchments representing a major threat to water security worldwide. Wildfires impacts on water quality have been thoroughly addressed by the scientific community through field studies, laboratory experiments, and, to a lesser extent, the use of hydrological models. Nonetheless, models are important tools to assess on-site and off-site wildfires impacts and provide the basis for post-fire land management decisions. This study aims to describe the current state of the art of post-fire model adaptation, understanding how wildfires impacts are simulated and the options taken by the modelers in selecting parameters. For this purpose, 42 publications on modeling wildfire impacts on the hydrologic cycle and water quality were retrieved from the SCOPUS database. Most studies simulated post-fire hydrological and erosion response in the first year after the fire, while few assessed nutrients changes and long-term impacts. In addition, most simulations ended at the watershed outlet without considering the fate of pollutants in downstream waterbodies. Ash transport was identified as a major research gap, given the difficulties of its incorporation in the current models’ structure and the high complexity in predicting the heterogeneous ash layer. Including such layer would improve models’ ability to simulate water quality in post-fire conditions, being ash a source of nutrients and contaminants. Model complexity and data limitations influenced the spatial and temporal scale chosen for simulations. Post-fire model adaptations to simulate on-site soil erosion are well established, mainly using empirical equations extensively calibrated in the literature. At the watershed level, however, physical and process-based models are preferred for their ability to simulate more complex burned area characteristics. Future research should focus on the simulation of the ash transport and the development of integrated modelling frameworks, combining watershed and aquatic ecosystem models to link the on and off-site impacts of fires.

A model-based prediction and analysis of seasonal and tidal influence on pollutants distribution from city outfalls of river Ganges in West Bengal, India and its mapping using GIS tool

Abstract: River Ganges (locally called as river Ganga) is one of the most scared rivers in India. The river is symbol of hope, faith and is worshipped for its wholesomeness due to its purity and sanctity. Pollution of river water due to anthropogenic activity is a very common issue worldwide. Similarly, river Ganga pollution in India throughout its entire courses, is a major concern due to city outfalls. This river, also named as river Hooghly in West Bengal, India, is exposed to outfalls carrying domestic wastewater of its both bank and their distribution in river Ganga is strongly influenced by season and tide. This study aimed to generate an idea of distance and direction wise changes of concentration of pollutants in wastewater in river Ganga. During 2014, the selection of five major outfalls was done by considering Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), heavy metals, total fecal coliform level, and the study continued for next four consecutive years to find out the influence of tide and season. Geographical Information System (GIS) based maps provided a better reflection of these changes. Student’s t-test highlighted the significant changes in concentration of parameters season wise. A significant higher value of DO, BOD, nitrate nitrogen, and chloride were found in pre-monsoon season compared to monsoon season. Regression Equation generated for highly correlated parameters (coliform and heavy metals) helped to predict the level of one parameter with others. The zone of influence of BOD, DO, phosphorus and nitrate nitrogen from each of the five selected outfalls was very prominent. Acoustic Doppler current profiler at two of the five outfalls helped to estimate strip-wise depth average discharge which helped to estimate the value of water quality parameters by Plug Flow Model during high tide and low tide. A strong tidal variation was observed during low tide. This study helped to predict the influential zone from outfalls which will help to generate an alternative solution of river water use. This approach can be applied globally to prepare river water usage guidelines.

Water remains a blind spot in climate change policies

Abstract: For the first time in the latest Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), water has been the focus of dedicated chapters in both Working Group 1 (Chapter 8) and 2 (Chapter 4). Nevertheless, we argue here that water has not yet received the full attention it deserves from both scientists and policymakers for several reasons. Firstly, the historical focus on temperature change has been further increased with the use of global warming levels motivated by an aim to be consistent with current policy framings. Secondly, an increasing attention paid to extreme weather has sometimes overshadowed longer time-scale changes such as the aridification of an increasing fraction of arable land and the increasing variability of the water cycle from month to month, season to season, and year to year that also yield cascading impacts on all water use sectors. Thirdly, a stronger focus is needed on understanding the effectiveness of current and future adaptation strategies in reducing water-related climate risks. Finally, the role of water has not been adequately recognized in the assessment of mitigation strategies although the compliance with the Paris Agreement and the current pledges all require a massive deployment of land-based strategies whose feasibility and efficiency heavily depend on water resources. It is thus essential to develop a more integrated approach to water and climate change, that would allow scientists and policymakers to “close the loop” between mitigation options, water cycle changes, hydrological impacts and adaptation.

Institutional influences on local government support for professionalized maintenance of water supply infrastructure in rural Uganda: A qualitative analysis

Abstract: Professionalized maintenance arrangements are emerging and growing to improve rural water service sustainability across sub-Saharan Africa, where local governments often act as rural service authorities. Uganda’s Ministry of Water and Environment released a novel policy in 2019 to promote professionalization, outlining requirements of local governments to support professionalized maintenance under a new framework for rural water service delivery. We identify how responsibilities of local government actors shifted under this policy and then use Organizational Institutional Theory to explore how the institutional environment—composed of regulative, normative, and cultural-cognitive pillars—influences these actors’ fulfillment of assigned functions under the new policy and support of professionalized maintenance arrangements. To do this, we collected, transcribed, and qualitatively coded data from semi-structured interviews with 93 Ugandan local government actors at all hierarchical levels across 22 sub-counties in three Ugandan districts. Due to infrequent references by interviewees to regulative influences on action such as formal rules and policies, we propose that the new policy alone is unlikely to motivate essential local government support. Allocated responsibilities must align with widely-cited normative and cultural-cognitive influences, including relationship expectations, typical processes and routines, political dynamics, notions of identity, perceived self-efficacy, and cultural beliefs. We recommend leveraging existing institutional influences where possible to motivate actions aligned with the policy. For example, local government actors can fulfill community expectations of them to solve prolonged nonfunctionality by connecting communities to professionalized maintenance service providers instead of performing individual out-of-pocket repairs. Improving understanding of local service authority perspectives is essential as professionalized maintenance arrangements emerge and grow and as new policies expand and shift essential support functions.

Improving water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), with a focus on hand hygiene, globally for community mitigation of COVID-19

Abstract: Continuity of key water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure and WASH practices—for example, hand hygiene—are among several critical community preventive and mitigation measures to reduce transmission of infectious diseases, including COVID-19 and other respiratory diseases. WASH guidance for COVID-19 prevention may combine existing WASH standards and new COVID-19 guidance. Many existing WASH tools can also be modified for targeted WASH assessments during the COVID-19 pandemic. We partnered with local organizations to develop and deploy tools to assess WASH conditions and practices and subsequently implement, monitor, and evaluate WASH interventions to mitigate COVID-19 in low- and middle-income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa, focusing on healthcare, community institution, and household settings and hand hygiene specifically. Employing mixed-methods assessments, we observed gaps in access to hand hygiene materials specifically despite most of those settings having access to improved, often onsite, water supplies. Across countries, adherence to hand hygiene among healthcare providers was about twice as high after patient contact compared to before patient contact. Poor or non-existent management of handwashing stations and alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) was common, especially in community institutions. Markets and points of entry (internal or external border crossings) represent congregation spaces, critical for COVID-19 mitigation, where globally-recognized WASH standards are needed. Development, evaluation, deployment, and refinement of new and existing standards can help ensure WASH aspects of community mitigation efforts that remain accessible and functional to enable inclusive preventive behaviors.

Water resources and trade: A research vision

Abstract: Water is an increasingly scarce resource in our globalized economy. At the same time, it is an essential input in the production of most goods and services enmeshed in an interconnected world economy. A rich literature has examined how water is used both directly in production and indirectly through supply chains and international trade (e.g., virtual water trade). There is now an opportunity to build on our understanding of who is using what water and where, with research that aims to understand why and how it is used. Such research should enlighten the mechanisms driving societal relations with water and inform decision-makers on how to increase water’s productivity, improve its allocation, and enable us to do more with less water. In this essay, we lay out our vision for research on the relationship between water and international trade.

Linking stormwater control performance to stream ecosystem outcomes: Incorporating a performance metric into effective imperviousness

Abstract: Stormwater control measures, such as raingardens, tanks, or wetlands, are often employed to mitigate the deleterious effects of urban stormwater drainage on stream ecosystems. However, performance metrics for control measures, most commonly pollutant-load reduction, have not permitted prediction of how they will change stream ecosystems downstream. Stream ecosystem responses have more commonly been predicted by catchment-scale measures such as effective imperviousness (percentage of catchment with impervious cover draining to sealed drains). We adapt effective imperviousness, weighting it by a performance metric for stormwater control measures aimed at stream protection, the stream stormwater impact metric. Weighted effective imperviousness can serve as a predictor of stream response to stormwater control. We demonstrate its application in a before-after-control-reference-impact experiment aiming to test if stream health is improved by dispersed stormwater control measures. Trends in weighted effective imperviousness showed wide variation in degree of stormwater control achieved in the six experimental sub-catchments, despite similar effort in implementing control measures across the sub-catchments. Greater reductions in weighted effective imperviousness (on a log-scale, on which stream response is predicted) per unit effort were observed in smaller catchments with lower starting effective imperviousness. While implementation of control measures was sufficient to expect a stream response in at least two of the experimental sub-catchments, we did not achieve the reduction in effective imperviousness that we were aiming for. Primary limitations to success were the lack of available space in these established suburbs, particularly for final control measures near pipe outlets into streams, and a lack of demand for harvested stormwater. The use of the continuous variable, weighted effective imperviousness, to measure impact on streams, and the protracted period of SCM implementation that varied among catchments, required a new approach to modelling “before-after-control-impact” experiments, which has potentially broader application.

Impacts of temperature and hydraulic regime on discolouration and biofilm fouling in drinking water distribution systems

Abstract: Discolouration is the greatest cause of customer dissatisfaction with drinking water quality, potentially masking other failures, including microbial issues, which can impact public health and well-being. The theorised association between biofilms (complex microbial communities) and discolouration within drinking water distribution systems (DWDS) was explored, whilst studying the impact and interactions of seasonal temperature variations and hydraulic regime. Transferability of findings to operational DWDS was ensured by using a temperature controlled, full-scale distribution experimental facility. This allowed isolation of the factors of interest, with integration of physical, chemical and microbial analyses. Greater discolouration and biofilm cell accumulation was observed under warmer (summer, 16°C) temperatures compared to cooler (winter, 8°C), evidence of microbiology being an important driver in DWDS discolouration behaviour. Temperature was generally more influential upon discolouration and biofilm cell volumes than the shear stress imposed by the hydraulic regimes, which included three steady state and two varied flow patterns. However, the trends were complex, indicating interactions between the two parameters in governing microbial accumulation and discolouration. These results are important in informing sustainable management of our ageing DWDS infrastructure to deliver safe high quality drinking water. By providing new evidence that discolouration is a biofilm/microbiologically-mediated process, we can better understand the importance of targeting interventions to hotter seasons, and manipulating hydraulic conditions (which we can control), to minimise the long-term impacts of impending changing climates on water quality.

Worldwide moderate-resolution mapping of lake surface chl-a reveals variable responses to global change (1997–2020)

Abstract: Anthropogenic activity is leading to widespread changes in lake water quality—a key contributor to socio-ecological health. But, the anthropogenic forces affecting lake water quality (climate change, land use change, and invasive species) are unevenly distributed across lakes, across the seasonal cycle, and across space within lakes, potentially leading to highly variable water quality responses that are poorly documented at the global scale. Here, we used 742 million chlorophyll-a (chl-a) estimates merged over 6 satellite sensors (daily, 1 to 4 km resolution) to quantify water quality changes from 1997 to 2020 in 344 globally-distributed large lakes. Chl-a decreased across 56% of the cumulative total lake area, challenging the putative widespread increase in chl-a that is expected due to human activity. 19% of lakes exhibited both positive and negative chl-a trends (p-value < 0.1) across different locations or times of the year. This spatiotemporal complexity demonstrates the value of moderate resolution mapping of lake chl-a to inform water management decision-making and to determine the local ecological consequences of human activity.

“Where does it go?”: Perceptions and problems of riverine and marine litter amongst South Africa and Malawi’s urban poor

Abstract: With the world’s oceans in crisis, citizen knowledge and awareness around riverine and marine waste has become an increasingly crucial topic of study. For most investigations, spatial analysis has centered on the coastline, or most specifically the beach, i.e., the space where most respondents (urban, Northern, middle class), encounter marine litter. Yet, by focusing on the beach as the primary space of analysis, most studies have severely limited the scope of citizens they can engage, because in many African cities it is a space of exclusion. Moreover, for individuals further upstream, in spaces distant from the coast, what are their understandings of riverine and marine litter? What is their knowledge of the hydrological systems standing between them and the sea, and how do they see their ability to influence them? Drawing on extensive qualitative fieldwork in low-income, riverine adjacent communities in Durban, South Africa, and Blantyre, Malawi, the purpose of this article is to understand how Africa’s urban poor experience and understand riverine and marine litter. The study utilises Foucault’s notion of problematisations, and more recent adaptations of Foucault’s work toward waste as a lens to conceptualise processes of problem formation: how individual respondents view riverine and marine litter as a problem. Findings suggest that problematisations around waste, in the community and in the hydrological system, are formed through daily experience and personal hardship; in the case of Blantyre, through the perceived impact waste can have on hydroelectricity generation, and in Johanna Road, by its contribution to flooding within the community. However, understandings of the marine environment and respondents’ impact on the hydrological system, remain limited. Recommendations include rooting education and messaging around riverine and marine litter within low-income individuals’ lived realities. However, any interventions targeted towards the poor must be accompanied by broader systemic change: improving access to solid waste management services and creating cleaner and more equitable communities.

The water industry and the decarbonisation of cities: A comprehensive review in the context of Cop26

Abstract: The urban water industry is a very energy intensive industry. Higher water quality standards are driving a level of energy growth that is threatening to move it to the top rank. Climate change is further exacerbating this situation: Growing aridity is variously imposing an enhanced carbon burden through water recycling, trans-regional pipelines and desalination plants. Natural disasters too can often affect water quality, requiring energy hungry mitigations. There’s clear evidence that a failure to appropriately weight energy considerations in water infrastructure is commonplace and that this is an unsustainable position for the industry and is prejudicial to working towards zero carbon cities targeting net zero by 2030. Real time tracking of CO2e emissions is an important starting point in raising operator consciousness and introducing rivalry between utilities in attaining abatement. So too is reaching out to the resource and manufacturing sectors to form strategic alliances, as well as seeking to enter into closer relationships with the energy sector.

Downscaling approaches of climate change projections for watershed modeling: Review of theoretical and practical considerations

Abstract: Water resources managers must increasingly consider climate change implications of, whether the concern is floods, droughts, reservoir management, or reliably supplying consumers. Hydrologic and water quality modeling of future climate scenarios requires understanding global climate models (GCMs), emission scenarios and downscaling GCM output, since GCMs generate climate predictions at a resolution too coarse for watershed modeling. Here we present theoretical considerations needed to understand the various downscaling methods. Since most watershed modelers will not be performing independent downscaling, given the resource and time requirements needed, we also present a practical workflow for selecting downscaled datasets. Even given the availability of a number of downscaled datasets, a number of decisions are needed regarding downscaling approach (statistical vs. dynamic), GCMs to consider, options, climate statistics to consider for the selection of model(s) that best predict the historical period, and the relative importance of different climate statistics. Available dynamically-downscaled datasets are more limited in GCMs and time periods considered, but the watershed modeler should consider the approach that best matches the historical observations. We critically assess the existing downscaling approaches and then provide practical considerations (which scenarios and GCMs have been downscaled? What are some of the limitations of these databases? What are the steps to selecting a downscaling approach?) Many of these practical questions have not been addressed in previous reviews. While there is no “best approach” that will work for every watershed, having a systematic approach for selecting the multiple options can serve to make an informed and supportable decision.

Effects of return flows on stream water quality and availability in the Upper Colorado, Delaware, and Illinois River Basins

Abstract: Understanding effects of human water use and subsequent return flows on the availability and suitability of water for downstream uses is critical to efficient and effective watershed management. We compared spatially detailed estimates of stream chemistry within three watersheds in diverse settings to available standards to isolate effects of wastewater and irrigation return flows on the suitability of downstream waters for maintaining healthy aquatic ecosystems and for selected human uses. Mean-annual flow-weighted total and source-specific concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in individual stream reaches within the Upper Colorado, Delaware, and Illinois River Basins and of total dissolved solids within stream reaches of the Upper Colorado River Basin were estimated from previously calibrated regional watershed models. Estimated concentrations of both nitrogen and phosphorus in most stream reaches in all three watersheds (at least 78%, by length) exceed recommended standards for the protection of aquatic ecosystems, although concentrations in relatively few streams exceed such standards due to contributions from wastewater return flows, alone. Consequently, efforts to reduce wastewater nutrient effluent may provide important local downstream benefits but would likely have minimal impact on regional ecological conditions. Similarly, estimated mean-annual flow-weighted total dissolved solids concentrations in the Upper Colorado River Basin exceed standards for agricultural water use and (or) the secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) for drinking water in 52% of streams (by length), but rarely due to effects of irrigation return flows, alone. Dissolved solids in most tributaries of the Upper Colorado River are attributable primarily to natural sources.

Barriers to water infrastructure investment: Findings from a survey of U.S. local elected officials

Abstract: Investment in U.S. drinking water infrastructure is not keeping pace with need, contributing to water service failures that threaten public health, economic development, and community water security. Many explanations for lagging investment focus on the motivations of local elected officials, but those explanations are not rooted in research on elected officials’ own expressed views. We surveyed a representative nationwide sample of approximately 500 city and county officeholders about their perceptions of need for investment and barriers to meeting that need. Analysis of closed-ended and open-ended question responses reveals that the main barriers to investment are financial: incumbents weigh the cost of capital projects against the debt burden and affordability challenge created by those investments. Their concern about public opposition to rate increases is an important constraint on decisions to invest in water infrastructure. Our results also demonstrate disparities across communities in the perceived fiscal burden of water infrastructure. The great majority of elected officials expressed little concern about the condition of infrastructure in their own communities, but concern about infrastructure condition was positively correlated with concern about making investments, pointing to the financial stress for decision makers who bear the expense of deteriorating water systems.

Fostering the transformative potential of participatory photography: Insights from water and sanitation assessments

Abstract: Transformative research and evaluation both aim to foster social change as part of the inquiry process, often leveraging participatory and tactile methods with an advocacy objective. One such approach is participatory photography which engages marginalized individuals in image creation and includes activities such as photovoice and photo-elicitation. This article considers opportunities to strengthen the transformative potential of participatory photography activities within the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector. The research comprised two components: 1) a systematic literature review of participatory photography activities in the WASH sector (n = 32) and 2) an empirical case of a photovoice evaluation of a staff-focused gender mainstreaming intervention in Cambodia (n = 20), including a structured survey, structured observations of the evaluation process, and three participatory reflection workshops with program leadership. Drawing on the two components, we reflect on the extent to which photography-based approaches in the WASH-sector have been transformative. Our findings indicate that transformative potential can arise from participatory photography’s process and outcomes. The research identified opportunities for the WASH-sector to strengthen participatory photography by 1) purposefully recruiting participants, 2) creating engaging orientation opportunities, 3) supporting participants in ethical image creation, 4) facilitating image interpretation, and 5) progressing photo-stories into advocacy. The study also considers how participatory photography can address gender inequalities inherent in photography, hence seeking gender-transformation. While these insights were derived for participatory photography activities in the WASH sector, the findings and implications have relevance in other sectors that seek to investigate complex change and foster transformations.

Knowledge, attitudes, practices and behaviours (KAPB) around water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in villagers exposed to schistosomiasis in Zimbabwe

Abstract: There is paucity of comprehensive studies on social, cultural and behavioural aspects that influence and constrain toilet and borehole adoption and use in rural Africa. The objective of this study was to provide an evidence base to inform policies on increasing end-user adoption of toilets and access to safe water sources. One hundred and twenty-seven households in the Murewa district of Zimbabwe were surveyed via questionnaire to determine the social, cultural and behavioural influences that drive ownership and use of toilets and safe water sources. Rates of the water borne schistosome infection amongst pre-school aged children (PSAC) in the community were determined as a marker of the relationship between water, sanitation and health. The study showed that the community’s water and sanitation (WASH) coverage was as follows: 60.62% had access to toilets and 48% had access to boreholes. Of those with access to toilets 16% of adults and 36% of children did not use the toilets, instead they practiced open defecation. Schistosomiasis prevalence in PSAC was 42.4%, with 13% of schistosome infection being attributed to open defecation and 27% to using river water. In relating WASH to status or wealth symbols, the study showed that 34% of the adults possessed livestock and 30.7% had a mobile phone but did not have a toilet. Reasons for non-uptake of WASH and non-adherence to toilet use included lack of suitable sanitation facilities, lack of cleanliness in existing facilities, cultural factors and sub-optimal health education. An integrative approach is needed to effectively improve uptake and adherence to WASH. The use of context relevant behavioural theories and interventions is required to influence prioritisation and subsequent adherence to WASH facilities.

Shared water facilities and risk of COVID-19 in resource-poor settings: A transmission modelling study

Abstract: Shared water facilities are widespread in resource-poor settings within low- and middle-income countries. Since gathering water is essential, shared water sites may act as an important COVID-19 transmission pathway, despite stay-at-home recommendations. This analysis explores conditions under which shared water facility utilization may influence COVID-19 transmission. We developed two SEIR transmission models to explore COVID-19 dynamics. The first describes an urban setting, where multiple water sites are shared within a community, and the second describes a rural setting, where a single water site is shared among communities. We explored COVID-19 mitigation strategies including social distancing and adding additional water sites. Increased water site availability and social distancing independently attenuate attack rate and peak outbreak size through density reduction. In combination, these conditions result in interactive risk reductions. When water sharing intensity is high, risks are high regardless of the degree of social distancing. Even moderate reductions in water sharing can enhance the effectiveness of social distancing. In rural contexts, we observe similar but weaker effects. Enforced social distancing and density reduction at shared water sites can be an effective and relatively inexpensive mitigation effort to reduce the risk of COVID-19 transmission. Building additional water sites is more expensive but can increase the effectiveness of social distancing efforts at the water sites. As respiratory pathogen outbreaks—and potentially novel pandemics—will continue, infrastructure planning should consider the health benefits associated with respiratory transmission reduction when prioritizing investments.

Modelling point-of-consumption residual chlorine in humanitarian response: Can cost-sensitive learning improve probabilistic forecasts?

Abstract: Ensuring sufficient free residual chlorine (FRC) up to the time and place water is consumed in refugee settlements is essential for preventing the spread of waterborne illnesses. Water system operators need accurate forecasts of FRC during the household storage period. However, factors that drive FRC decay after water leaves the piped distribution system vary substantially, introducing significant uncertainty when modelling point-of-consumption FRC. Artificial neural network (ANN) ensemble forecasting systems (EFS) can account for this uncertainty by generating probabilistic forecasts of point-of-consumption FRC. ANNs are typically trained using symmetrical error metrics like mean squared error (MSE), but this leads to forecast underdispersion forecasts (the spread of the forecast is smaller than the spread of the observations). This study proposes to solve forecast underdispersion by training an ANN-EFS using cost functions that combine alternative metrics (Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency, Kling Gupta Efficiency, Index of Agreement) with cost-sensitive learning (inverse FRC weighting, class-based FRC weighting, inverse frequency weighting). The ANN-EFS trained with each cost function was evaluated using water quality data from refugee settlements in Bangladesh and Tanzania by comparing the percent capture, confidence interval reliability diagrams, rank histograms, and the continuous ranked probability. Training the ANN-EFS using the cost functions developed in this study produced up to a 70% improvement in forecast reliability and dispersion compared to the baseline cost function (MSE), with the best performance typically obtained by training the model using Kling-Gupta Efficiency and inverse frequency weighting. Our findings demonstrate that training the ANN-EFS using alternative metrics and cost-sensitive learning can improve the quality of forecasts of point-of-consumption FRC and better account for uncertainty in post-distribution chlorine decay. These techniques can enable humanitarian responders to ensure sufficient FRC more reliably at the point-of-consumption, thereby preventing the spread of waterborne illnesses.

Water data for water science and management: Advancing an Internet of Water (IoW)

Abstract: In the face of climate change, natural resource and environmental quality managers around the world face increasing pressure to manage water carefully and ensure its quality for sustainable water supplies, sanitation, and public health. These managers require information derived from water data—including administrative records, as well as results from environmental measurement, monitoring, modeling, analysis, and assessment. However, data production is distributed across a fragmented system of natural resource and environmental governance across sectors and jurisdictions within and between countries. This fragmentation means that data are collected for different purposes across different scales, and stored and published in innumerable formats and platforms. While these data are often made public, their staggering heterogeneity makes them difficult to find and use beyond the primary purpose for which they were collected [1]. Thus, analysts spend more time finding, cleaning, and formatting data than on analysis. In addition to these technical issues, the cultures of agencies that manage public water are generally wary of opening, sharing, and reusing water data, because of a lack of incentives as well as perceived costs and risks to privacy, security, and sovereignty [2]. The challenge of water data management, therefore, presents a classic public goods collective action problem, since the benefits of good water data management accrue primarily to secondary users rather than the data producers themselves. While some cost and risk concerns can be addressed with modern data infrastructure, a broad shift in norms and behavior across public agencies and utilities will be essential to enable the technical transformation necessary to maximize the power of water data.

PLOS Water: A bridge and a voice for the water sectors

Abstract: It is hard to overstate the importance of fresh water to health and well-being. Water underpins the functioning of ecosystems upon which all life depends. It supports human development through its role in food production, manufacturing, energy generation, recreation, cultural and spiritual practices, among other pursuits. Our vision for PLOSWater is to bridge the diverse scholarly and practice communities engaging with these and other dimensions of freshwater management and use. More than simply a venue for reporting science, we see the journal as an active voice for the broader community, one that can influence and shape the future use of water globally. That voice is urgently needed. Over the past century, use of fresh water increased by an estimated 600% as the earth’s population has grown, urbanized, and become wealthier [1]. The timing, intensity and distribution of precipitation also began to shift as a result of climate change during this period [2]. Increased demand, paired with increasing uncertainty of supply, has had predictable and often devastating effects for those with relatively less political power, and for fragile aquatic ecosystems. More than 2 billion people still lack access to a safe, convenient source of drinking water, despite substantial reduction in global poverty over the past several decades [3]. Less than a quarter of the world’s large rivers flow uninterrupted to the ocean, and more than a third of wetlands have been lost since 1970 [4, 5]. Such impacts often emerge as unintended consequences of the complex systems of relationships that shape, and are shaped by, the management and use of fresh water. For example, whereas acute water scarcity is experienced at the local or watershed scale, many determinants of water availability and quality operate at regional or even global scales, in sectors ranging from energy and transport to manufacturing and international trade [6, 7]. Indeed, even wellintentioned efforts to advance equity, efficiency, resilience, or ecosystem health will have unforeseen effects [8, 9]. If all our efforts incorporated this idea we would be better placed to adapt and mitigate responses, across all scales and sectors. Growing appreciation of the complexity inherent in freshwater systems can be seen both in academic literature and in practice, such as with the emergence of scholarship on social-ecological systems and the development of adaptive management approaches [10, 11]. Nevertheless, it is still the case that both the study and the management of fresh water is organized into specialized subgroups that have relatively limited interaction. Our siloes are established through training and education in disciplinary communities, where strong incentives exist to become well-known within a narrowly defined area. Disciplines themselves create their own political economy: methodologies are not just preferred but prioritized, and technical languages strengthen internal communication while impeding broader engagement.

Assessment of drinking water access and household water insecurity: A cross sectional study in three rural communities of the Menoua division, West Cameroon

Abstract: Water is a physiological need, key for survival. In limited water access situations, health, well-being, and productivity of households are negatively affected. Water insecurity refers to when access to adequate amount of clean water does not occur all the times for household members to lead a healthy and active life. A cross sectional study was conducted with 121 women from three rural communities in the West-Cameroon, to assess water insecurity experience and its correlation with related indicators. Specifically, this study aimed to: examine drinking water access by time spent on collection and distance to the water source, determine the prevalence of household water insecurity, and examine the relationship between water insecurity and diarrhea as well as drinking water access-related indicators. The main sources of drinking water included boreholes (69%), wells (13%), and rivers (12%). Each household spent an average total amount of 3 hours on water fetching. The mean duration of the drinking water stored was 4 days, after which the process was repeated. The majority of households (94.2%) were water insecure (total WATINE-17 score ≥1). About 61% reported drinking less water than they felt they should and 32% of them, said they had to drink dirty water. Water insecurity mean score was higher in households who reported diarrhea among their 0–5 years old children than their counterparts (p = 0.008). This study highlights the problem that good access to improved water source still represents in low-resource households of rural areas, with the subsequent complex interactions on women and children’s health. Future research on water management and storage is warranted to understand the sources of cross-contamination and to identify the potential points of intervention to ensure safe drinking water for rural households. Policies should be designed in order to incorporate systematic household water insecurity measurement in monitoring advancement towards 2030 SDG.

Analysis of management systems for sustainability of infection prevention and control, and water sanitation and hygiene in healthcare facilities in the Greater Kampala Area, Uganda

Abstract: Sustaining Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH), and Infection Prevention and Control (IPC) services in healthcare facilities (HCFs) remain a challenge in the developing world. This is largely attributable to ineffective management systems such as leadership, training, monitoring, financing and accountability, and operation and maintenance (O&M) for WASH and IPC. This study analysed management systems for the sustainability of WASH and IPC in HCFs in the Greater Kampala Metropolitan Area (GKMA), Uganda. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in 59 HCFs. Data were obtained from HCF in-charges using the WASHCon tool. Indicators of sustainability across HCF level and ownership were compared using Chi-square tests, performed in Stata 14 statistical software. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered significant. Less than half, 42.4% (25/59) of the HCFs had trained their staff on WASH issues, and 44.1% (26/59) had WASH and IPC guidelines. Nearly all, 91.2% (31/34) of the HCFs that needed new sinks, taps, or pipes could not afford them due to insufficient funds. The perceptions of in-charges that it was their responsibility: to ensure that staff receive training on WASH and IPC (p = 0.014); to oversee the O&M of WASH and IPC infrastructure (p = 0.005); and to sustain WASH and IPC infrastructure and behaviours (p = 0.014) varied by ownership of the HCF. Availability of written guidelines on WASH and IPC varied by level and ownership (p = 0.010). In this study, sub-optimal management systems for WASH and IPC were noted, and leadership, training and monitoring, financing, and accountability varied across level and ownership of the HCFs. Nonetheless, simple acts such as recognising the best performing staff in WASH and IPC can boost the morale of the staff. Also, there is a need for budget increments and functionalisation of the WASH and IPC committees in order to sustain recommended practices.