Showing papers in "Policy Sciences in 2002"
TL;DR: ISO 14001, released in 1996, provides the basic framework for the establishment of an Environmental Management System (EMS) that can be audited and certified ISO is not only an acronym for the International Organization for Standardization, but is also a term that refers to its Greek meaning: ‘equal’ as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: ISO 14001, released in 1996, provides the basic framework for the establishment of an Environmental Management System (EMS) that can be audited and certified ISO is not only an acronym for the International Organization for Standardization, but is also a term that refers to its Greek meaning: ‘equal’ The main rationale for the creation of ISO 14001 was that its worldwide acceptance should facilitate international trade by harmonizing otherwise diffuse environmental management standards and by providing an internationally accepted blueprint for sustainable development, pollution prevention, and compliance assurance
589 citations
TL;DR: The public policy literature has paid little attention to evaluating the ability of voluntary environmental programs to generate economic benefits for firms, yet, given their voluntary nature, provision of economic benefits to firms is a necessary condition for these programs to become effective environmental policy instruments as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The public policy literature has paid little attention to evaluating the ability of voluntary environmental programs to generate economic benefits for firms. Yet, given their voluntary nature, provision of economic benefits to firms is a necessary condition for these programs to become effective environmental policy instruments. Additionally, little is known about why firms operating in developing countries would participate in these initiatives.
323 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine variations in firm-level adoption of environmental management systems (EMS) in the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States, and conclude that there are numerous ways governments and interested stakeholders can encourage companies to adopt voluntary environmental codes.
Abstract: This paper examines variations in firm-level adoption of environmental management systems (EMS) – ISO 14001 and the European Union's Eco-Audit and Management Scheme (EMAS) – in the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States. Drawing on insights from club theory, institutional theory, and stakeholder theory, it argues that despite the fact that these EMS are created by supranational organizations (one regional and one international), firms' perceptions of their costs and benefits are largely determined by domestic factors. In particular, these perceptions are shaped by how EMS are promoted and information about them is disseminated in each country (supply aspects) and how the constellation of stakeholders (suppliers, environmental groups, regulators, general public) support their introduction (demand aspects). The paper concludes that there are numerous ways governments and interested stakeholders can encourage companies to adopt voluntary environmental codes. The key is to find the right mix of incentives for specific national contexts.
197 citations
TL;DR: In this article, perceived risk and attitudes toward technology are considered in a wide contextual perspective Risk perception data are related to technology and technology attributes, in particular with respect to the possibility of replacing a technology, to the belief that it may have as yet unknown effects, and have effects involving a destructive relationship with Nature.
Abstract: In this paper, perceived risk and attitudes toward technology are considered in a wide contextual perspective Risk perception data are related to technology and technology attributes, in particular with respect to the possibility of replacing a technology, to the belief that it may have as yet unknown effects, and have effects involving a destructive relationship with Nature These contextual characteristics of a hazard are shown empirically to add powerful explanatory force to models of risk perception of attitudes toward technology The risk concept is then further differentiated Risk as a property of an activity is distinguished from risk as a property of an unwanted consequence (injury), the latter being clearly more important for policy attitudes It is also found that the operational definition of risk and trust is an important factor in determining the relationship between these two concepts Detailed study of gene technology and nuclear power showed that these hazards were particularly amenable to mapping with risk perception concepts of the kind applied here In the case of gene technology it was also found that consumer intentions displayed much the same risk perception dynamics as policy attitudes
103 citations
TL;DR: The behavioral model of choice as mentioned in this paper is a model of human behavior capable of serving as the micro-level foundation for organizational and policy studies, due primarily to the efforts of Herbert Simon, organization theorist James March, and computer scientist Allen Newell.
Abstract: By 1958, a model of human behavior capable of serving as the micro-level foundation for organizational and policy studies was in place, due primarily to the efforts of Herbert Simon, organization theorist James March, and computer scientist Allen Newell. Yet the fundamentals of that model, the behavioral model of choice, to this date have not been fully incorporated into policy studies and organizational analyses. The ‘Simon program’ remains incomplete. Much analysis continues to rely on thick or thin models of rational maximization. As is well-known, the behavioral model of choice links to organizational processes better than rational actor assumptions. But the behavioral model of choice also predicts distributions of organizational and policy outputs in a superior fashion, and need not draw in extraneous descriptive facets of human behavior to the analysis. As Herb Simon did beginning in 1945 until his death in 2001, I continue to advocate a solid behavioral base for the analysis of political and economic systems.
91 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors demonstrate how narrative analysis can account for how particular influence stories, or policy narratives, come to dominate the policy process, and show that policy metanarratives are shown to have strong pre-figurative effects and to be more pervasive than previously recognised.
Abstract: Using findings from research on the implementation of telephone number portability in New Zealand, we demonstrate how narrative analysis can account for how particular influence stories, or policy narratives, come to dominate the policy process. In this paper, we extend the concept of metanarrative, which to date has been interpreted as a story that policy makers use to recast policy problems. Policy metanarratives are shown to have strong pre-figurative effects and to be more pervasive than previously recognised.
74 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the climate change regime reflects and further institutionalizes the prevailing international normative structure in the environmental issue area, characterized as "liberal environmentalism", which has enabled and constrained climate change policy development in Canada, the world's largest emitters of greenhouse gases per capita.
Abstract: The 1997 Kyoto Protocol establishes an international institutional framework for domestic responses to climate change that links emission targets for developed countries to international market mechanisms. Although these ‘flexible mechanisms’ allow developed countries some leeway in how they meet their commitments to reduce greenhouse gases, the protocol also establishes a normative framework that directs domestic policy responses along certain paths. Applying insights from sociological institutionalism and constructivism in international relations, this article argues first, that the climate change regime reflects and further institutionalizes the prevailing international normative structure in the environmental issue area, characterized as ‘liberal environmentalism.’ Second, these norms, as embodied in the climate change regime, have enabled and constrained climate change policy development in Canada, one of the world’s largest emitters of greenhouse gases per capita. International norms can shape or redefine domestic interests, enable policies in conformity with those norms, and create normative pressures for change by linking with extant domestic and foreign policy norms. Uncovering this international institutional-domestic policy interaction resolves the paradox of Canada's promotion of commitments and mechanisms consistent with its domestic interests and institutional constraints, but eventual commitment to action well beyond what those constraints dictate. This commitment continues despite Kyoto's uncertain future. The findings also point to lacunae in the literature on regime compliance and effectiveness more broadly, especially its dominant rationalist variant.
70 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined sustainable development in the context of these other belief types and concluded by cautioning policymakers to consider these additional policy arguments and define the policy agenda more fully, concluding that sustainable development is one of several beliefs in a more complex framework of perspectives on forest use than had been assumed.
Abstract: Concepts of preservation, conservation, and development shaped in large part the debate about U.S. environmental policy at the end of the 19th century. Forest use was often the focal point of controversy. Throughout the 20th century, Americans continued debating forest use, but by the late 20th century, the assumption that 19th century beliefs prevailed had begun to create a barrier to understanding changing perspectives. This paper begins by discussing one of these new perspectives, sustainable development, which has gained international prominence since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development after being mentioned in the 1986 World Commission on Environment and Development's Our Common Future. Following the introduction to sustainable development, this paper briefly presents the results of a 1989 study using Q methodology, which identified the emergence of sustainable development as one of several beliefs in a more complex framework of perspectives on forest use than had been assumed. In addition to sustainable development, this new framework included beliefs in nature as a community to be respected, a place for personal growth, a means for demonstrating self-reliance, and a rallying point for grassroots activism. This paper examines sustainable development in the context of these other belief types and concludes by cautioning policymakers to consider these additional policy arguments and define the policy agenda more fully.
51 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of the literature on voluntarism focusing specifically on the bargaining context within which agreements are negotiated is presented, and three factors that contribute to the effectiveness of voluntary policy generally: regulatory bargaining power, non-regulatory bargaining power and reciprocity.
Abstract: Theoretical and empirical research on voluntarism has focused primarily on U.S. and European examples, but has generally failed to consider the Japanese system of voluntary environmental agreements. Nevertheless, Japanese VEAs are one of the world’s oldest experiments in voluntary policy; careful analysis of the characteristics and contexts may improve understanding about the critical factors associated with effective voluntary policy. This paper reviews the extant literature on voluntarism focusing specifically on the bargaining context within which agreements are negotiated. It details three factors that contribute to the effectiveness of voluntary policy generally: regulatory bargaining power, non-regulatory bargaining power and reciprocity. The paper then provides a brief but detailed analysis of the development of voluntary agreements in Japan. Comparisons with voluntary policies in the U.S. and Europe are included. Findings indicate similarities and some significant differences between the Japanese system and other national systems of voluntary policy. Conclusions discuss implications for theory and policy.
33 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a functional approach is presented using Q methodology and factor analysis as a way to reveal functional responses to the same decision-making scenario employed by Fernandes and Simon.
Abstract: Fernandes and Simon propose to examine decision making in complex and ambiguous situations by inviting various professionals (architects, doctors, engineers, and lawyers) to contemplate a paradoxical case, but the thoughts which this exercise generates are then summarized in terms of categories proposed a priori (structural information). A functional approach, by way of contrast, endeavors to examine a phenomenon as closely as possible in terms of its intrinsic character. An alternative is presented using Q methodology and factor analysis as a way to reveal functional responses to the same decision making scenario employed by Fernandes and Simon.
29 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the U.S. federal program for offshore oil leasing has been examined in the context of the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) and the potential for autogenic succession.
Abstract: Although the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) offers a promising approach for the study of policy change, other social science perspectives – specifically including human ecology – point to competing expectations. The ACF proposes that external perturbations are a necessary precondition for policy change; by contrast, work in human ecology draws attention to the potential for autogenic succession– cases where people or organizations act in ways that bring about their own demise. This difference in perspectives is tested with respect to a policy subsystem that has been found to offer a valuable context for examining ACF expectations, namely the U.S. federal program for offshore oil leasing. Many developments within this program have been quite consistent with ACF expectations; the rise to power of a new governing coalition in 1981, for example, did lead to a decided shift in policies, and the National Academy of Sciences did play roughly the role predicted by ACF. In addition, however, key sources of policy change were set in motion by members of the governing coalition itself – based on actions that were quite consistent with the policy core beliefs of the governing coalition, but not consistent with the assessments by independent scientists. The experience suggests that what is needed is not so much a rejection of the ACF as its refinement. Even without ‘external perturbations,’ members of the governing coalition have the potential to undercut their own interests, if only because of the potential power of the self-negating belief. Ironically, this potential may be the highest in precisely those cases where the governing coalition has the greatest apparent ability to impose its own beliefs, and the lowest level of apparent need to respond to alternative or competing views.
TL;DR: In this article, the U.S. Division of Grazing revisited the case of the Livingston case and showed the limitations of capture theory with respect to localism and provided a new perspective on the issue by revisiting the case.
Abstract: Determining the appropriate balance between local and national interests is an enduring issue in public and environmental policy. Study of this issue, however, has been impeded by the theory of agency capture. This paper demonstrates the limitations of capture theory with respect to localism and provides a new perspective on the issue by revisiting the case of the U.S. Division of Grazing, a common example in the literature of a ‘captured’ agency. Until now, the over-extension of capture theory to this case has obscured the division's extensive efforts to balance local and federal influence over range policy and prevent domination by large private interests. At the center of this struggle was a prominent legal dispute over local control involving Colorado sheepherder Joseph Livingston. As a detailed debate over political representation and the merits of localism, the Livingston case holds important lessons for modern community-based conservation efforts seeking similar policy goals.
TL;DR: In this paper, almost three hundred scholars from around the world participated in a survey designed to define which pre-conditions and actions by the sender are desirable in order for economic sanctions to succeed.
Abstract: In this paper we are trying to answer the question of when economic sanctions have the best chance to succeed. Almost three hundred scholars from around the world participated in a survey designed to define which pre-conditions and actions by the sender are desirable in order for economic sanctions to succeed. The resolution algorithm is employed to find out whether there is a consensus among the scholars about the factors leading to the success of economic sanctions. The results provide evidence that when scholars were grouped by region the consensus could be reached that sanctions will succeed if: (1) modest policy change is sought, (2) sanctions are comprehensive, i.e., both trade and financial sanctions are imposed, (3) the target does not receive significant support from a third party, (4) the sender has much greater economy than the target, (5) there is international co-operation in the imposition of sanctions, and (6) the target is economically and politically weak and unstable. When scholars were grouped based on the level of economic development of their countries of origin, a consensus on all but one issue (sender’s welfare or economic interest are threatened by target’s action) was reached between scholars from economically developed nations and scholars from less developed nations. Surprisingly, experts from economically developed nations, i.e., the United States versus EU nations, could not reach a consensus on several issues.
TL;DR: Herbert Simon, the Richard King Mellon University Professor of Computer Science and Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University and the most decorated behavioral and social scientist of the last millennium, died on February 9, 2001, aged 84 as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Herbert Simon, the Richard King Mellon University Professor of Computer Science and Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University and the most decorated behavioral and social scientist of the last millennium, died on February 9, 2001, aged 84. Simon’s lifelong obsession was to understand how humans make decisions and solve problems. The obsession was triggered by a policy question posed to him at the age of 19 about allocation behavior in a municipal government. This obsession stimulated contributions in several disciplines and the creation of new fields of inquiry. The relevance of Simon’s wide-ranging contributions in psychology, economics, computer science, political science, organization theory, philosophy, logic, and public administration to the policy sciences may not be immediately obvious to policy scientists. It should be.
TL;DR: The authors argued that the precautionary principle of reserved rationality helps explain the ability of bureaucracies to choose appropriate actions under uncertainty, and drew historical information from the case of Singapore's regulation of the formerly common pool resource of water catchment areas.
Abstract: Can bureaucracies respond to threats marked by both potentially high costs and fundamental uncertainty? Standard guidelines such as maximizing expected value to the society over a period of time may be ineffective; yet, state action is often most demanded for such situations. I argue that the precautionary principle of reserved rationality helps explain the ability of bureaucracies to choose appropriate actions under uncertainty. Such bureaucracies are empowered when there is sufficient informal institutional support for their expertise and the bureaucracy has the discretion to take necessary precautions. I draw historical information from the case of Singapore's regulation of the formerly common pool resource of water catchment areas. This case reveals decision making when it is not clear that the expected-value criterion would support action, as well as the importance of political and institutional support for such action.
TL;DR: A remarkable series of research and prototyping initiatives came out of the Rand Corporation's study of how services were designed and provided to disabled children in America and the institutional innovation of service direction centers helped dramatically to fill the gaps in handicapped children's services and to improve the coordination of services.
Abstract: Around the campfires of policy scientists, the Brewer-Kakalik research on handicapped children's services is considered a tour deforce of problem-definition breakthrough, achieved through disciplined application of a comprehensive policy sciences framework. A remarkable series of research and prototyping initiatives came out of the Rand Corporation's study of how services were designed and provided to disabled children in America. The institutional innovation of service direction centers helped dramatically to fill the gaps in handicapped children's services and to improve the coordination of services. The project ultimately made a significant contribution to federal legislation that not only brought greater coherence to the government efforts to provide such services, but also guaranteed their rights to adequate services. As an exemplar of policy sciences analysis, it showed the great strength of 'case-wise'