Showing papers in "Psychological Bulletin in 1978"

Gender Effects in Decoding Nonverbal Cues

Abstract: This article summarizes results of 7S studies that reported accuracy for males and females at decoding nonverbal communication. The following attributes of the studies were coded: year, sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person(s), age of stimulus person(s), and the medium and channel of communication (e.g., photos of facial expressions, filtered speech). These attributes were examined in relation to three outcome indices: direction of effect, effect size (in SD units), and significance level. Results showed that more studies showed female advantage than would occur by chance, the average effect was of moderate magnitude and was significantly larger than zero, and more studies reached a conventional level of significance than would be expected by chance. The gender effect for visual-plus-auditory studies was significantly larger than for visual-only and auditory-only studies. The magnitude of the gender effect did not vary reliably with sample size, age of judges, sex of stimulus person(s), or age of stimulus person(s). The study of people's ability to judge the meanings of nonverbal cues of emotion has a long history in social psychology, dating to the second decade of this century. The first question asked was whether people could recognize nonverbally expressed emotions at all, and this was followed by the search for correlates of judging ability. Gender was one of the first attributes of judges to be examined in relation to judging ability. Gender has not always been an important variable in psychological research. In the study of nonverbal communication, however, gender was considered important from the start, because of the predictions that could be made based on gender role stereotypes and folk beliefs about "woman's intuition." Researchers of nonverbal communication have clearly felt that the comparison of males' and females' performances is theoretically

Partialed products are interactions; partialed powers are curve components.

Abstract: The fact that simple (zero-order) correlations of products (XZ) and powers (X, X*) with other variables (Y) are not invariant over linear transformations of their constituents (X, Z) has led to confusion and anxiety about their use as independent variables in the representation of interactions and curve components in general multiple regression/correlation analysis. This article demonstrates that when their constituents are linearly partialed out, products and powers are invariant with regard to both their correlations and tests of significance; further, their raw score regression coefficients are simply rescaled. Partialed products and powers are not subject to constraints of orthogonality, level of scaling, or whether data arise from experiments or observational studies.

Metaphor: Theoretical and empirical research

Abstract: Metaphor plays a major role in our understanding of language and of the world we use language to talk about. Consequently, theories of language comprehension and of language itself are incomplete if they do not handle the phenomenon of metaphor, and they are inadequate if they cannot. Traditional definitions and theories of metaphor are reviewed. It is suggested that they err in equating metaphors with comparisons rather than merely implicating comparisons. Empirical research is reviewed that reveals, for the most part, serious problems, particularly in the developmental research. These problems often relate to inadequate underlying theories about the nature of metaphor. Other difficulties include inadequate controls over preexisting knowledge and overly hasty conclusions that children cannot understand metaphors. Related research on the comprehension of proverbs and analogies is discussed. Some recommendations for future research are made. These depend on a redefinition of metaphor and on the employment of aa investigative approach that will permit adequate controls of preexisting knowledge, surface structure, and meaning. The approach recommended emphasizes and takes advantage of the contextdependent nature of metaphors. Finally, the role of comparisons is reexamined. It is of no avail to argue that metaphors are really implicit comparisons if, in so doing, one hopes to account for or explain their nonliteral nature. For even if metaphors can be transformed into comparisons, these comparisons are themselves nonliteral and consequently still need to be explained.

Neuropsychological test results associated with psychiatric disorders in adults.

Abstract: This review addresses the question of whether neuropsychological tests can be used to discriminate between cerebral dysfunction and nonorganic psychiatric disorders. Considered are 94 studies that compared test scores of psychiatric patients with scores of brain-damaged patients or with established norms for organicity. Despite methodological inconsistencies and deficiencies across studies, most studies found that psychiatric diagnostic groups other than chronic or process schizophrenics performed better than organics on testing. Organic versus functional discrimination rates reported in these studies are similar to discrimination rates obtained by the tests when organics are compared with normal or general medical controls. Considered together with organicity base rate and error cost estimates, these discrimination rates are high enough to justify the use of most popular neuropsychological tests in psychiatric settings that do not have high proportions of chronic or process schizophrenics. The possibility is discussed that groups of chronic or process schizophrenics may look organic on neuropsychological tests because a significant proportion of such patients are organic.

Father absence and children's cognitive development.

Abstract: Reviews literature showing detrimental effects of father absence on children's cognitive development as assessed by standardized IQ and achievement tests and school performance. Differential effects associated with characteristics of the absence (cause, duration, onset), the child (age, sex, race, socioeconomic status), and the skill tested (quantitative, verbal) are examined. The evidence suggests that financial hardship, high levels of anxiety, and, in particular, low levels of parent-child interaction are causes of poor performance among children in single-parent families; sex role identification, however, does not play an important role. An alternative hypothesis concerns the representativeness of father-absent families. The mother's ability to compensate for loss of the father is also considered. (77 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1978 American Psychological Association.

Semantic and syntactic processes in aphasia: a review of the literature.

Abstract: Recent investigations of lexical and syntactic aspects of language comprehension in aphasia are reviewed. It is argued that these studies support theoretical assumptions concerning the functional independence of various components of normal language processing. Studies of the structure of the lexicon in aphasia provide support for componential theories of lexical semantics in that different types of features of meaning can be selectively disrupted under conditions of brain damage. Studies of sentence comprehension support the existence of a syntactic mechanism that is independent of lexically based heuristic strategies for assigning meaning. There is evidence that these independent elements of language are subserved by different portions of the dominant hemisphere of the brain. Focal brain damage can thus cause selective disruption of components, allowing the separation of elements that are highly integrated in the normal adult. Studies of aphasic language, therefore, provide a valuable source of constraints on theories of normal language processing.

Applicability of chi-square to 2???2 contingency tables with small expected cell frequencies.

Abstract: Standard statistics textbooks recommend the use of chi-square with 2X2 contingency tables only when the expected frequency of each cell is at least five. The Yates correction for continuity is also recommended to increase the accuracy of the resulting probability statement. The empirical consequences of these recommendations were explored on a wide variety of 2 X 2 contingency tables. Pearson's chi-square test was found to be very robust with small expected cell frequencies. As expected from theoretical considerations, the Yates correction decreases the accuracy of probability statements when either or both marginals are not fixed. The chi-square test for 2 X 2 contingency tables is widely used in research. Virtually all textbooks in statistical methods recommend that the chi-square test (Pearson's chisquare) not be employed for 2 X 2 contingency tables if the expected frequency in any cell falls below five. With small cell frequencies, the probability derived from the chi-square test is thought to be an unsatisfactory approximation to the true probability-— since large-sample theory is used in the derivation of chi-square, the probability statement will be precise only when the sample size is large. Often-quoted rules of thumb state that the minimum expected cell frequency should be at least 5 (Cochran, 1954; Fisher, 19S8) or 10 (Hays, 1973) before the probabilities associated with the chi-square statistic can be considered accurate. In addition to the minimum expected frequency question, there is a related issue concerning the Yates correction for continuity. Almost all textbooks (e.g., Dixon & Massey, p. 242) recommend the Yates correction, claiming that it increases the accuracy of the probability statements in all 2x2 contingency tables.