Showing papers in "Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport in 1983"
TL;DR: In this paper, a lead model was constructed using the trunk data to obtain the radii of gyration in both the sagittal and frontal planes of a single male cadaver was dissected to compare the trunk measurements with the lead model results.
Abstract: Anatomical data necessary for the analysis of human motion are presented on the total living body segmented into sixteen parts. Cadaver data from Dempster (1955) are applied to water displacement data obtained on 135 living subjects (35 men and 100 women) to obtain the weight, center of gravity, and radius of gyration for the segmented extremities. Thirty-three of these subjects (15 men and 18 women) were used to obtain the weight of the segments of the trunk, using the water displacement method, and sixteen of these subjects (7 men and 9 women) were used to locate the center of gravity of each trunk segment. A lead model was constructed using the trunk data to obtain the radii of gyration in both the sagittal and frontal planes. A single male cadaver was dissected to compare the trunk measurements with the lead model results.
563 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effectiveness of depth jumping has been examined in the context of the volleyball team at Brigham Young University-Hawaii and a weight training class at the University of Hawaii.
Abstract: In recent years, a method of plyometrics (exercises that cause a rapid lengthening of a muscle prior to contraction) called depth jumping has become a part of the training routine of many athletes. Two experiments are described in which the effectiveness of the exercises is examined. In Experiment 1, undergraduate students in beginning weight training classes trained with three different jumping programs: (1) maximum vertical jumps, (2) 0.3 m depth jumps, and (3) 0.75 m and 1.10 m depth jumps. In addition, all groups also lifted weights. In Experiment 2, a weight training class and the volleyball team at Brigham Young University-Hawaii were divided into two groups. One group lifted weights and performed 0.75 and 1.10 m depth jumps. The other group only lifted weights. In Experiment 1, the three training programs resulted in increases in one repetition maximum (1 RM) squat strength, isometric knee extension strength, and in vertical jump; however, there were no significant differences between trea...
151 citations
TL;DR: The relationships among ventilatory threshold T(vent), running economy and distance running performance in a group of trained experienced male runners with comparable maximum oxygen uptake and submaximal steady state oxygen uptake were assessed.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess the relationships among ventilatory threshold T(vent), running economy and distance running performance in a group (N=9) of trained experienced male runners with comparable maximum oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O2 max). Maximal oxygen uptake and submaximal steady state oxygen uptake were measured using open circuit spirometry during treadmill exercise. Ventilatory threshold was determined during graded treadmill exercise using non-invasive techniques, while distance running performance was assessed by the best finish time in two 10-kilometer (km) road races. The subjects averaged 33.8 minutes on the 10km runs, 68.6 ml · kg -1 · min -1 for [Vdot]O2 max, and 48.1 ml · kg -1 · min -1 for steady state [Vdot]O2 running at 243 meters · min -1. The T(vent) (first deviation from linearity of [Vdot]E, [Vdot]CO 2 ) occurred at an oxygen consumption of 41.9 ml · kg -1 · min -1. The relationship between running economy and performance was r = .51 (p>0.15) and the relationship b...
90 citations
TL;DR: Serial data for 268 normal children have been used to calculate predicted adult statures without using skeletal age, and these predicted values are significantly correlated with accepted measures of physical maturity from 5 to 15 years in boys, and from 3 to 13 years in girls.
Abstract: Serial data for 268 normal children (144 boys, 124 girls) have been used to calculate predicted adult statures without using skeletal age. Present statures at an age have been used with these predicted values to obtain ratios that are significantly correlated (p <.05 or < .01) with accepted measures of physical maturity from 5 to 15 years in boys, and from 3 to 13 years in girls. Reference values for this ratio are provided. It is recommended that this non-invasive method of measuring maturity be used when irradiation cannot be justified or when the invasion of personal privacy is inappropriate.
72 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of age, modeling and verbal self-instruction on children's performance of a sequential motor task were examined, and it was found that older children performed better than younger children on motor, verbal-cognitive, and attentional measures.
Abstract: The present study was designed to examine the effects of age, modeling and verbal self-instruction on children's performance of a sequential motor task. Eighty-four children between the ages of 4–0 and 5–11 years and 84 children between the ages of 7–0 and 8–11 years were randomly assigned to one of six instructional conditions in a 2 × 3 × 2 (age × model type × verbal self-instruction) factorial design. Results revealed that older children performed better than younger children on motor, verbal-cognitive, and attentional measures. More importantly, an age by model type interaction revealed that model effectiveness depended on the age of the observer as well as the type of model observed. Specifically, 7- and 8-year-old children performed equally well after observing either a silent or verbal model, while the 4- and 5-year-olds performed best under a verbal model only. The absence of verbal self-instructional effects was attributed to task difficulty, information processing capabilities and metho...
68 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate how much academic learning time is experienced by elementary and secondary school students during regular physical education classes (ALT-PE) and investigate three major ALT variables, that is, time devoted to specific content areas, learner engaged time with relevant material, and student's success rate.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine how much academic learning time is experienced by elementary and secondary school students during regular physical education classes (ALT-PE) and to investigate three major ALT variables, that is, time devoted to specific content areas, learner engaged time with relevant material, and student's success rate. Subjects were 30 elementary and 31 secondary school physical education teachers; all had two of their regular classes observed according to the ALT-PE observational procedure developed by Siedentop and his colleagues. Group average results were found to be consistent over time, but individual data showed very little stability. The ALT-PE mean results were 31.3% and 36.5% respectively for the elementary and secondary school level and were significantly different. From 19% to 34% of the class period was spent, on the average, in other than P.E. content activities. When class groups, as a whole, were involved in P.E. content activities, students, consid...
57 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assess perceived and experienced role conflict of high school female athletes in enacting the roles of female and female athlete and find that the athletes perceived greater role conflict than they had ex...
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to assess perceived and experienced role conflict of high school female athletes in enacting the roles of female and female athlete. Data were collected on 133 high school varsity athletes by the use of a 33-item questionnaire designed to assess perceived and experienced role conflicts of the subjects, their socioeconomic backgrounds, and specific instances of encouragement or discouragement from significant others experienced during their athletic careers. Thirty-two percent of the subjects responded that they perceived little or no problem with role conflict, and 50% had experienced little or no role conflict. Seventeen percent of the subjects responded that they perceived role conflict to be a great or very great problem with 11% experiencing role conflict to the same degree. A chi square analysis of perceived and experienced role conflict computed for the entire group of subjects indicated that the athletes perceived greater role conflict than they had ex...
53 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, 15 male subjects were filmed in the saggital plane while performing a short (50 meter) maximal exertion sprint and a long (400 meter) fatiguing sprint.
Abstract: In order to compare the kinematic and kinetic effects of fatigue on the mechanics of sprint running, 15 male subjects were filmed in the saggital plane while performing a short (50 meter) maximal exertion sprint and a long (400 meter) fatiguing sprint. The short sprint was filmed at 40 meters, while the long sprint was filmed at 40 and 380 meters. The films were reduced utilizing a digitizer coupled to a computer terminal. Analysis results were generated via a human motion analysis program. Kinematic and kinetic results were entered into the statistical analysis as differences between non-fatigued and fatigued values. Initially, quality of the performance (measured by the change in horizontal velocity of the body center of gravity) was statistically related to change in the kinetic variable of integrated muscle moment at each of the body joints. The kinetic variables found to be significant were then statistically compared to logically related changes in kinematic variables (temporally adjacent o...
53 citations
TL;DR: Exercise may postpone the deterioration in response speed that is generally observed in the aged motor system, by maintaining the nigrostriatal dopamine system.
Abstract: The clinical landmarks of an aging motor system closely resemble diseases of the extrapyramidal system, notably the basal ganglia. Similarly, mechanisms that appear to be related to one of these diseases, Parkinson's disease, also seem to be related to motor system aging. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, impaired in both Parkinson's disease and in aging, has been shown to be substantially involved in movement initiation. This involvement has been shown by analyzing nigrostriatal dopamine in fast vs slow responding animals, and by manipulating the dopaminergic system by pharmacological methods. Exercise may postpone the deterioration in response speed that is generally observed in the aged motor system, by maintaining the nigrostriatal dopamine system. This mechanism is suggested by differences in neurotransmitter function seen in exercise rats compared to sedentary rats, and in studies of dopamine metabolites obtained from exercised humans. These mechanisms suggest that an excellent physica...
49 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of weight training on the self-concepts of college males was investigated and the results revealed significant post-test differences in global, internal, and external selfconcept between the groups, confirming the hypothesis that regular weight training is positively associated with the improvement of selfconcept.
Abstract: This study was conducted to determine the effect of weight training on the self-concepts of college males. Another purpose was to identify the types of males, relative to measures of extroversion, neuroticism, body cathexis, somatotype, and muscular strength, who experience the most improvement in self-concept during a lifting program. Subjects of the experimental group (n = 113) trained with weights twice each week for 16 weeks, while controls (n = 127) were educated relative to personal health concepts. The results revealed significant posttest differences in global, internal, and external self-concept between the groups, confirming the hypothesis that regular weight training is positively associated with the improvement of self-concept. Pretest body cathexis, self-concept, and neuroticism scores were significant predictors of global self-concept change from the pretest to the posttest, whereas pretest measures of extroversion, somatotype, and muscular strength were not. Changes in neuroticism,...
48 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared three groups with different levels of gymnastic teaching experience in the ability to recognize components of previously presented gymnastic performances, and found that Specialists were significantly more accurate than Generalists and Novices, but that Generalists were not different from Novices.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between teaching experience and selected factors involved in skill analysis, namely, perceptual recognition and visual inspection strategy. Specifically, the study compared three groups with different levels of gymnastic teaching experience in the ability to recognize components of previously presented gymnastic performances. The nature of the recognition task also made it possible to test certain tentative hypotheses regarding strategies employed by the groups. The recognition accuracy of 20 gymnastic coaches (Specialists), 20 veteran physical education teachers (Generalists), and 20 pre-service physical education teachers (Novices) were assessed using a unique film/slide testing technique which permitted variation of the information load imposed upon the observer. Results indicated that Specialists were significantly more accurate than Generalists and Novices, but that Generalists were not different from Novices. There was no statistic...
TL;DR: Venous lactate increased continuously throughout the duration of the control or PLA trials, while lactate was unchanged throughout the FRU and GLU trials, and R values were significantly higher during the GLU and FRU trials.
Abstract: To evaluate the effects of glucose and fructose on endurance performance, six trained women ran at 80% [Vdot]O2 max until exhaustion, 45 min after the ingestion of a 30% glucose solution (GLU), a 30% fructose solution (FRU), a saccharin placebo solution (PLA), and 300 ml water. A double-blind protocol was used. Heart rates were the same for all four trials, averaging 173 ± 8 beats · min -1. The PLA trials were significantly shorter (p < 0.05) than all other trials: 52.2 ± 5 min vs GLU = 63.9 ± 8.5, FRU = 61.9 ± 8.3, or control = 65.0 ± 7.6 min. Glucose treatment yielded an exercise [Vdot]O 2 of 2.96 ± 0.07 1 · min -1, significantly lower than the FRU (3.15 ± 0.14 1 · min -1 ) control (3.19 ± 0.14 1 · min -1 ) or PLA (3.46 ± 0.11 1 · min -1 ) trials. Compared to controls or PLA, R values were significantly higher during the GLU and FRU trials. Venous lactate increased continuously throughout the duration of the control or PLA trials, while lactate was unchanged throughout the FRU and GLU trials. P...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors attempted to determine whether the nature of training experiences influenced the development of coincident timing skill in young children. But their experiment was limited to 60 first grade children and the task involved visual tracking of a moving light sequence and arm movement to a padded target.
Abstract: The present study attempted to determine whether the nature of training experiences influences the development of coincident timing skill in young children. The task involved visual tracking of a moving light sequence and a 43 cm arm movement to a padded target. Subjects attempted to tap the target coincident with the completion of the light sequence. Sixty first grade children were randomly assigned to one of five groups, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Subjects assigned to the training groups received 48 trials on each of two days, with stimulus speeds that were either slow (179 cm/sec or 4 mph), fast (313 cm/sec or 7 mph), varied-random (179, 224, 268, 313 cm/sec or 4, 5, 6, 7 mph), or varied-blocked (i.e., 6 consecutive trials with one speed before changing to another). Control subjects performed a neutral coloring activity during the training phase of the experiment. All subjects were then given 10 trials on a third day with each of two stimulus speeds not experience...
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of decision-making on elementary children's development was evaluated by measuring attitudes, creativity, self-concept, and motor skills, and Pearson product-moment correlation showed the tested variables to be independent measures of a child's development.
Abstract: Attitudes, creativity, self-concept and motor skills were measured to determine the influence of decision-making on elementary children. Three groups of children (N = 208) were tested, one group was taught with the teacher dominating all classroom decisions, another group was encouraged to share in the decision-making, and a third group served as a control. Data were collected immediately before and after an eight-week instructional period. MANCOVA indicated that the two treatment groups had significantly higher scores than did the control group, and the shared decision-making group scored significantly higher than the teacher dominated group on measures of creativity, motor skills and self-concept. A 2 (treatment) × 2 (sex) × 5 (grade) ANOVA revealed significantly more positive attitude scores for children allowed to make decisions regarding their learning. Further, Pearson product-moment correlation showed the tested variables to be independent measures of a child's development.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the techniques of ice skating acceleration through analysis of specific characteristics of the movement pattern during a front start skating task using two Locam 16 mm cameras operating at 100 frames per second.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the techniques of ice skating acceleration through analysis of specific characteristics of the movement pattern during a “front start” skating task. Two Locam 16 mm cameras operating at 100 frames per second were used to record side and overhead views of the first 6.0m of the skating starts of 69 male subjects. Data were collected on three skating start criteria, three structural variables, and twelve performance variables measured over the first three strides of the start. Summary statistics were generated and Pearson product moment correlation analysis was used to assess relationships between the criteria and performance variables. In addition, stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to predict time to skate 6.0m from a combination of the structural and performance variables. Results revealed that the mean time taken to skate 6.0m was 1.95 sec; the mean instantaneous velocity at the 6.0 mark was 5.75 m/s; and the mean average acceleration over 6.0...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the modifications in the control of the biceps brachii and triceps bachii (antagonist) muscles during the learning of two elbow flexion tasks in sixteen college-age women.
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate the modifications in the control of the biceps brachii (agonist) and triceps brachii (antagonist) muscles during the learning of two elbow flexion tasks in sixteen college-age women. A positioning and a coincidence task were each performed at 40° and 200° per second angular velocity while bipolar surface electrodes recorded the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the muscles involved. Data on the EMG activity, angular kinematics, and timing and angular displacement error were quantified and subjected to statistical analyses. The results of the error analyses indicated that subjects did learn the various tasks over the 120 trials. Because there were no significant changes in the angular velocity patterns over trials, the EMG activity modifications are suggested to reflect differences in the control of the muscles monitored during the movements. In addition, EMG activity pattern modifications which occurred in discrete portions of the movements in bot...
TL;DR: The relationship between physical stimulus-psychological response relationship has been described as being either a prothetic or a metathetic continuum as discussed by the authors, which is, as the stimulus intensity increases, the response magnitude increases (prothetic) or stays the same (metathetic).
Abstract: The physical stimulus-psychological response relationship has been described as being either a prothetic or a metathetic continuum. That is, as the stimulus intensity increases, the response magnitude increases (prothetic) or stays the same (metathetic). The first experiment of this study considered this relationship for a movement having the final limb position, or location, as its goal. The second experiment focused on an extent movement. Subjects were tested on a linear positioning apparatus in both experiments using the method of constant stimuli for determining thresholds. On the basis of the Weber ratios and the JND's for the three increasing movement locations and extents, a metathetic continuum was determined as best describing location movements, while a prothetic continuum was considered more appropriate for extent movements. JND's indicated sensitive discrimination for location movements (1.08 to 1.39 cm for 25 to 75 cm locations) and less precise discrimination capability for extent m...
TL;DR: The authors examined undergraduate physical education majors' perceptions of the roles of teacher and coach and found that gender was significantly related to role preference, with males indicating a greater preference for the coaching role.
Abstract: This investigation examined undergraduate physical education majors' perceptions of the roles of teacher and coach. A questionnaire was administered to a sample of 80 physical education majors at a large urban university. Subjects were asked to rate the importance of twelve characteristics or abilities for teachers and for coaches. Results indicated that the subjects viewed the abilities needed for each of the roles as similar. Subjects were asked to indicate their job preference, and to estimate their ability to perform each of the roles. Gender was significantly related to role preference, with males indicating a greater preference for the coaching role. Students indicating a preference for teaching only have less experience in athletics than the coaching only and the teaching/coaching groups. A significant relationship was found for selected background variables with estimated role performance. The variables most highly related to confidence in one's ability to teach were positive role models ...
TL;DR: The main purpose of as discussed by the authors was to ascertain the job responsibilities and essential characteristics of intercollegiate athletic directors (ADs) and to solicit their recommendations for a graduate program of study in athletic administration.
Abstract: Over the past decade the field of athletics has experienced rapid growth and change, underscoring the need for updating knowledges about effective administration of these programs. The main purpose of this study was to ascertain the job responsibilities and essential characteristics of intercollegiate athletic directors (ADs) and to solicit their recommendations for a graduate program of study in athletic administration. The study was primarily exploratory, much of the data being descriptive in nature. A random sample of 320 ADs (163 men and 157 women) participated in the study. Rankings of job responsibilities were significantly affected by the competitive level (division) of the program administered, but not by the gender of the AD or whether the AD headed an NCAA or AIAW program. The implication is that courses of study should reflect the responsibilities in varying competitive divisions while incorporating common areas of responsibilities that apply to all programs. Regardless of the gender o...
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of practice on the bilateral transfer of complex movement patterns by having subjects learn two complex dance movement sequences in eight treatment conditions (a 2 × 2 × × 2 factorial design using naive and experienced ability, side preference and transfer of one-trial learning versus practice).
Abstract: The customary teaching methodology for dance classes is for the teacher to demonstrate the simple or complex motor pattern on the right side and for the students to practice and perform it on the right side. Then, without practice, the students perform the movement on the left side. This experiment tested the effects of practice on the bilateral transfer of complex movement patterns by having subjects learn two complex dance movement sequences in eight treatment conditions (a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design using naive and experienced ability, side preference and transfer of one-trial learning versus practice). An ANOVA yielded significant main effects for transfer (practice) and for side preference (non-preferred to preferred side). The implication for dance is that, intuitively, teachers have been correct in expecting students to bilaterally transfer complex movements which they have learned. However, teachers should teach to the nonpreferred side (i.e., the left side) to maximize learning through b...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors performed an analysis of racing wheelchairs used by athletes at the 1980 Olympic Games for the Disabled, held at Arnham, Holland, and classified them by the level of success achieved in them and by the distances over which they were raced.
Abstract: Photometric analysis of racing wheelchairs used by athletes at the 1980 Olympic Games for the Disabled, held at Arnham, Holland, was undertaken. Chairs were classified by the level of success achieved in them and by the distances over which they were raced. For each chair the position and orientation of the seat was measured, as were the length and the width of the wheelchair frame. In addition, mainwheel camber and handrim diameter were measured. Significant differences (at or beyond the .05 level) in wheelchair construction were recorded. The more successful wheelchairs were characterized by (1) lower seats, (2) the seat base at a comparatively higher angle to the horizontal, (3) narrower frame, (4) smaller handrims. The chairs used in distance events differed significantly from those used in sprints in (1) a more rearward placement of the seat, (2) lower placement of the seat, (3) longer chair frame and (4) narrower frame construction.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared the perceptual response to absolute exercise intensities of individuals differing in cardiovascular fitness using both the RPE scale and a magnitude estimation procedure, and found that the mean (± SD) perceptual exponent for the high fit women (1.33 ±.41) was significantly higher than the low fit women.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptual response to absolute exercise intensities of individuals differing in cardiovascular fitness using both the RPE scale and a magnitude estimation procedure. Male (N = 34) and female (N = 41) subjects were classified as either high or low fit on the basis of predicted maximal oxygen uptake. Subjects cycled for two six-minute periods separated by a five-minute rest period. Following two minutes of cycling at 600 kpm ṁ min-1, work loads of 200, 400, 800, and 1000 kpm ṁ min-1 were presented in random order for one minute. The mean (± SD) perceptual exponent for the high fit women (1.33 ± .41) was significantly (p .05). For both samples, RPE values did not differ significantly between high and low fit groups at any work load (p > .05). Heart rate was significantly (p < .05) higher at each work ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used a retention test to investigate the effect of post-knowledge of results (KR) interval on motor learning and performance, and found that no such assumption can be made regarding this effect upon learning.
Abstract: Previous investigations regarding activity during the post-knowledge of results (KR) interval have considered the performance of interference groups over KR-supplied acquisition trials as indicative of effects upon learning. The absence of transfer tests in these studies, however, preclude such an assumption. Indeed, the use of a retention test in the present investigation (no-KR trials following an interpolated phase) provided evidence suggesting that, while activity during the post-KR interval is detrimental to performance, no such assumption can be made regarding this effect upon learning. These findings are discussed relative to recent arguments that some of the commonly accepted “Laws of KR” may be contradictory when applied simultaneously to motor learning and performance.
TL;DR: It was concluded that acute bouts of exercise may have short term anorexigenic effects, but that alterations in appetite with extended periods of training are less clearly defined.
Abstract: Body composition has become a major field of interest for many exercise and sport scientists as well as clinicians who specialize in the prevention of and rehabilitation from hypokinetic diseases. This review article discusses the state of the art within selected areas of body composition, including the following: exercise in appetite regulation, the use of body density to estimate relative body fat in selected populations, the use of anthropometric equations to estimate body composition, and alterations in body composition with exercise training. It was concluded that acute bouts of exercise may have short term anorexigenic effects, but that alterations in appetite with extended periods of training are less clearly defined. Exercise training does result in modest decreases in total and fat weight and in relative body fat, and small increases in lean body weight. However, these alterations are not substantial. Finally, major research efforts are needed to improve methodology in body composition a...
TL;DR: In this article, a 2 × 3 (sex × age) factorial analysis of variance was used to determine whether effects of variation between and within age and sex factors for each of the dependent variables of selected kinematic (displacement and velocity) and kinetic (ground reaction force) variables were significant.
Abstract: Selected kinematic and kinetic variables in the running pattern of 2-, 4-, and 6-year-old children were investigated. Cinematographic records and force-plate tracings were used to study the running patterns of the 28 Caucasian subjects, 15 male and 13 female. A 2 × 3 (sex × age) factorial analysis of variance was used to determine whether effects of variation between and within age and sex factors for each of the dependent variables of selected kinematic (displacement and velocity) and kinetic (ground reaction force) variables were significant. The running speeds improved with age. Although height and weight gains influenced the improvement shown in performance, certain biomechanical variables also contributed to the development of the running pattern. In the majority of the selected kinematic and kinetic variables there were significant differences between the 2-year-old group and the other two groups. Where there were significant differences in the variables, the differences tended to be in dis...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored some aspects of those factors for the specific purpose of gaining insight into processes underlying the observational learning of motor skills and found that subjects who observed a model who had practiced under variable conditions were later able to perform in a manner q...
Abstract: Two factors said to influence motor learning are mode of information feedback and conditions of practice. The current investigation explored certain aspects of those factors for the specific purpose of gaining insight into processes underlying the observational learning of motor skills. Design was a practice (variable/constant) X information mode (modeling/physical) X trials factorial. Physical practice occurred in the absence of vision. Dependent variable was an angular positioning task. The acquisition phase consisted of 60 KR trials. The physical conditions received KR based on their own response outcomes, while the modeling groups heard model-contingent KR. Subsequent no-KR transfer to a new target located outside the range of previous practice supported the notion of the superiority of variable over constant practice during observational learning. The results also indicated that subjects who observed a model who had practiced under variable conditions were later able to perform in a manner q...
TL;DR: In this paper, two experiments were conducted in a large scale environment using jogging as the means of locomotion, and the results indicated that older children reproduced the location and distance better than younger children.
Abstract: In order to investigate how children remember distance (route) and location (landmark) information, two experiments were conducted in a large scale environment using jogging as the means of locomotion. In Experiment 1, thirty 4-year-old and thirty 9-year-old children were randomly assigned within age to three groups which were cued prior to the jog to remember the event, location of the event or distance to the event. Results indicated that older children reproduced the location and distance better than younger children. Cueing children to remember the location resulted in more accurate estimates than the other conditions. In Experiment 2, 5-year-old, 9-year-old, and 12-year-old children (24 children of each age) were randomly divided into step counting strategy and control groups, and asked to reproduce a criterion distance jogged. Results indicated that the three strategy groups and the 12-year-old controls estimated distance with similar accuracy, but the 9- and 5-year-old controls were differ...