Showing papers in "Review of General Psychology in 2011"

Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions.

Abstract: Within American psychology, there has been a recent surge of interest in self-compassion, a construct from Buddhist thought. Self-compassion entails: (a) being kind and understanding toward oneself in times of pain or failure, (b) perceiving one’s own suffering as part of a larger human experience, and (c) holding painful feelings and thoughts in mindful awareness. In this article we review findings from personality, social, and clinical psychology related to self-compassion. First, we define self-compassion and distinguish it from other self-constructs such as self-esteem, self-pity, and self-criticism. Next, we review empirical work on the correlates of self-compassion, demonstrating that self-compassion has consistently been found to be related to well-being. These findings support the call for interventions that can raise self-compassion. We then review the theory and empirical support behind current interventions that could enhance self-compassion including compassionate mind training (CMT), imagery work, the gestalt two-chair technique, mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Directions for future research are also discussed.

Self-Centeredness and Selflessness: A Theory of Self-Based Psychological Functioning and Its Consequences for Happiness

Abstract: The theoretical model presented in this paper emerged from several different disciplines. This model proposes that the attainment of happiness is linked to the self, and more particularly to the structure of the self. We support the idea that the perception of a structured self, which takes the form of a permanent, independent and solid entity leads to self-centered psychological functioning, and this seems to be a significant source of both affliction and fluctuating happiness. Contrary to this, a selfless psychological functioning emerges when perception of the self is flexible (i.e., a dynamic network of transitory relations), and this seems to be a source of authentic-durable happiness. In this paper, these two aspects of psychological functioning and their underlying processes will be presented. We will also explore the potential mechanisms that shape them. We will conclude with an examination of possible applications of our theory.

Heroism: A Conceptual Analysis and Differentiation Between Heroic Action and Altruism

Abstract: Heroism represents the ideal of citizens transforming civic virtue into the highest form of civic action, accepting either physical peril or social sacrifice. While implicit theories of heroism abo...

Measure Twice, Cut down Error: A Process for Enhancing the Validity of Survey Scales:

Abstract: For years psychologists across many subfields have undertaken the formidable challenge of designing survey scales to assess attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. Correspondingly, scholars have writte...

Vigor as a Positive Affect at Work: Conceptualizing Vigor, Its Relations with Related Constructs, and Its Antecedents and Consequences:

Abstract: Vigor refers to individuals' feelings that they possess physical strength, emotional energy, and cognitive liveliness, and represents a moderate-intensity affect experienced at work. Though it has ...

Creativity and Discovery as Blind Variation: Campbell's (1960) BVSR Model after the Half-Century Mark:

Abstract: This article assesses and extends Campbell's (1960) classic theory that creativity and discovery depend on blind variation and selective retention (BVSR), with special attention given to blind vari...

Who Is the Fairest One of All? How Evolution Guides Peer and Media Influences on Female Body Dissatisfaction

Abstract: relation between body dissatisfaction and eating disorders. Regarding eating disorders, we focus specifically on anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN). In the first section, we critically review contemporary psychology’s focus on the media as a primary source of body dissatisfaction. In the second, we turn our attention to eating disorders, specifically focusing on secular trends in AN and BN as well as their cross-cultural prevalence. Evidence that these disorders are not “culturally bound” and that they are not increasing dramatically leads us to view skeptically claims that media are an important cause of eating disorders. The third section considers the evidence that peer influences are an important factor in causing body dissatisfaction in women. We consider it valuable to contrast both the evidence and relative focus of psychology on peer and media influences. In the fourth section we move from the research on body dissatisfaction and eating disorders to providing a theoretical explanation of these findings. We do so by briefly reviewing sexual selection theory as it pertains to female intra- and intersexual competition. In the last section, we present a preliminary model that integrates the previous literature reviewed and attempts to explain the complex relationship between media, peers, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders. Our specific focus is on putative social factors that have intensified the implicit and explicit levels of competition between women and how these may influence body image concerns.

Fearing the Future of Empirical Psychology: Bem's (2011) Evidence of Psi as a Case Study of Deficiencies in Modal Research Practice:

Abstract: In this methodological commentary, we use Bem’s (2011) recent article reporting experimental evidence for psi as a case study for discussing important deficiencies in modal research practice in empirical psychology. We focus on (a) overemphasis on conceptual rather than close replication, (b) insufficient attention to verifying the soundness of measurement and experimental procedures, and (c) flawed implementation of null hypothesis significance testing. We argue that these deficiencies contribute to weak method-relevant beliefs that, in conjunction with overly strong theory-relevant beliefs, lead to a systemic and pernicious bias in the interpretation of data that favors a researcher’s theory. Ultimately, this interpretation bias increases the risk of drawing incorrect conclusions about human psychology. Our analysis points to concrete recommendations for improving research practice in empirical psychology. We recommend (a) a stronger emphasis on close replication, (b) routinely verifying the integrity of measurement instruments and experimental procedures, and (c) using stronger, more diagnostic forms of null hypothesis testing.

Sustainable Well-Being: A Potential Synergy Between Sustainability and Well-Being Research

Abstract: This article outlines a potential synergy between sustainability and well-being research. Currently aims within well-being and sustainability research focus on increasing well-being. First, sustain...

Unpacking Intuition: A Process and Outcome Framework:

Abstract: In recent years, the topic of intuition has become an important focus of attention in psychology. It is often assumed to be a unitary construct; however, recent research suggests that intuition is ...

A Model of Meaning-Making Coping and Growth in Combat Veterans

Abstract: More than 1.6 million military men and women have deployed to fight the global war on terror. Although studies have suggested that approximately one third of these service men and women return with...

The Dynamic Goal Theory of Marital Satisfaction

Abstract: Marital satisfaction is gaining increasing concern in modern society. The current review proposes the dynamic goal theory of marital satisfaction to integrate previous findings about marital satisfaction from a life span developmental perspective. The theory argues that people have multiple goals to achieve in their marriage. These marital goals can be classified into three categories: personal growth goals, companionship goals, and instrumental goals. The priority of the three types of marital goals is under dynamic changes across adulthood. Generally speaking, young couples emphasize the personal growth goals, middle-aged couples prioritize the instrumental goals, and old couples focus on the companionship goals. Whether the prioritized marital goals are achieved in marriage determines marital satisfaction. Other factors influencing marital satisfaction can be linked with marital goals in two ways. Some factors, such as life transitions and cultural values, can affect the priority of different marital goals; while other factors, such as communication pattern, problem solving, and attribution, can facilitate the achievement of the prioritized marital goals.

The Cognitive Differentiation-Integration Effort Hypothesis: A Synthesis between the Fitness Indicator and Life History Models of Human Intelligence:

Abstract: This article presents a potential synthesis between the fitness indicator and life history models of human intelligence through consideration of the phenomena of ability differentiation and integration. The cognitive differentiation-integration effort hypothesis proposes that these effects result from a life history tradeoff between cognitive integration effort, a mating effort component associated with strengthening the positive manifold amongst abilities; and cognitive differentiation effort, a somatic effort component associated with the cultivation of specific abilities. This represents one of two largely independent sources of genetic variance in intelligence; the other is mediated by general fitness and mutation load and is associated with individual differences in levels of ‘genetic g’. These two sources (along with a common source of environmental variance) combine to give rise to a variety of cognitive phenotypes characterized by different combinations of high or low levels of ‘genetic g’ and cognitive specialism or generalism. Fundamental to this model is the assumption that measures of life history speed (K) and g are essentially independent, which is demonstrated via meta-analysis of 10 studies reporting correlations between the variables ( .023, ns, n 2056). The implications of the model are discussed in an evolutionary, ecological, and developmental context. Seven key predictions are made in the discussion which if tested could provide definitive evidence for the hypothesis.

A Dynamic Process Model of Forgiveness: A Cross-Cultural Perspective:

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to discuss cultural similarities and differences in the processes of forgiveness. Forgiveness is a complex construct without a consensual definition. Generally speaking...

Toward a unified model of human motivation.

Abstract: Motivational theory has taken many forms throughout history, reflecting the scientific paradigms and current concerns of the day. The result is a diverse array of theoretical constructs and core mo...

Toward a Theory of Followership

Abstract: Unlike most of the leadership literature, which focuses on the leaders themselves, the point of departure in this paper is that the psychology of the followers is the key to understanding the leade...

A hypothesis about the biological basis of expert intuition

Abstract: It is well established that intuition plays an important role in experts’ decision making and thinking generally. However, the theories that have been developed at the cognitive level have limits in their explanatory power and lack detailed explanation of the underlying biological mechanisms. In this paper, we bridge this gap by proposing that Hebb’s (1949) concept of cell assembly is the biological realization of Simon’s (1974) concept of chunking. This view provides mechanisms at the biological level that are consistent with both biological and psychological findings. To further address the limits of previous theories, we introduce emotions as a component of intuition by showing how they modulate the perception-memory interaction. The idea that intuition lies at the crossroads between perception, knowledge, and emotional modulation sheds new light on the phenomena of expertise and intuition.

An Integrative Conceptual Framework for Assessing Personality and Personality Pathology

Abstract: As a contribution to the ongoing debate over the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-5, we present a framework for jointly conceptualizing personality and personality pathol...

Near-death experience: Out-of-body and out-of-brain?

Abstract: During the last decades, several clinical cases have been reported where patients described profound subjective experiences when near-death, a phenomenon called “near-death experience” (NDE). Recurring features in the accounts involving bright lights and tunnels have sometimes been interpreted as evidence of a new life after death; however the origin of such experiences is largely unknown, and both biological and psychological interpretations have been suggested. The study of NDEs represents one of the most important topics of cognitive neuroscience. In the present paper the current state of knowledge has been reviewed, with particular regard to the main features of NDE, scientific explanations and the theoretical debate surrounding this phenomenon.

The influence of fictional narrative experience on work outcomes:a conceptual analysis and research model

Abstract: Fictional narrative experience is assumed to have a profound impact on human behavior, but the possible outcomes and the processes through which fictional narrative experience influence behaviors have rarely been studied. This paper introduces a model of the consequences of fictional narrative experience through transportation and transformation processes. We discuss a framework for understanding the effects of fictional narrative experience, distinguishing affective and behavioral effects, and temporality of effects (short-term or persistent). Exemplary outcomes of fictional narrative experience are presented, including recovery, creativity and interpersonal behavior. Finally, we propose that the effects of fictional narrative experience are dependent upon a person’s frame of reference, as well the extent to which a reader can identify with the main characters, the perceived usefulness of a narrative, and degree of verisimilitude in the narrative.

Categorization of synaesthesia.

Abstract: This article is an attempt to synthesize the current knowledge about synaesthesia from many fields such as literature, arts, multimedia, medicine, or psychology The main goal of this paper is to classify various types and forms of synaesthesia Besides developmental synaesthesia being likely to play a crucial role in developing cognitive functions (constitutional or neonatal synaesthesia) there are types of synaesthesia acquired during adulthood (eg, phantom or artificial synaesthesia), momentary synaesthesia triggered temporarily in people who do not show signs of synaesthesia every day (eg, virtual, narcotic, or posthypnotic synaesthesia), and associational synaesthesia which, semantically speaking, refers to some universal sense relations (eg, literary, artistic, and multimedia synaesthesia) There is a hypothesis that every kind of synaesthesia holds a different function—compensatory or integrative It was suggested that synaesthesia can be described in one dimension, showing the intensity of this phenomenon The stronger types of synaesthesia are: semantic, conceptual, intermodal, synthetic, comprehensive, external and bidirectional The weaker types of synaesthesia are: sensory, perceptual, intramodal, analytic, partial, internal and unidirectional There are huge individual differences in the manner that synaesthesia presents itself By including a classification of kinds, types, and forms of synaesthesia into future experimental research will ensure a better understanding of the nature of this phenomenon, its mechanisms and the role that it plays in developing cognitive processes

Characteristics and Antecedents of People Who Hoard Animals: An Exploratory Comparative Interview Study

Abstract: Currently, case studies and media reports provide the only descriptive information available to understand what distinguishes hoarding of animals from nonhoarding animal ownership. This poorly understood problem appears to be associated with substantial mental health difficulties. The present study investigated characteristics and antecedents that might explain hoarding behaviors. Sixteen people who fit criteria for hoarding of animals and 11 nonhoarding controls who owned large numbers of animals participated in semistructured interviews that were analyzed using somewhat atypical qualitative and quantitative methods. The interviews focused on demographic information, history of animal contact, social history, insight into physical and mental health issues, collecting behaviors, and beliefs and emotions associated with animals. Descriptive statistics and qualitative analyses were used to examine differences between hoarding and nonhoarding groups and to capture distinguishing themes and patterns. Both groups were well matched in demographic variables and were mainly White women of middle age; the average number of animals owned was 31. Thematic content common to both groups was stressful life events (both childhood and adult), strong emotional reactions to animal death, strong caretaking roles and attitudes toward animals, a tendency to rescue animals, and intense feelings of closeness or attachment to animals. Themes found significantly more often among animal hoarding participants than controls included problems with early attachment, chaotic childhood environments, significant mental health concerns, attribution of human characteristics to animals, and the presence of more dysfunctional current relationships. These themes are elaborated and discussed with regard to potential models for understanding hoarding of animals.

Rereading Vygotsky's Theses on Types of Internalization and Verbal Mediation:

Abstract: The Vygotskyan sociocultural approach to human development and cognition marked a new direction in psychology and created new, distinctive avenues for exploring fundamental matters of the mind. The...

The Relationships Between Motivations of Intergroup Differentiation as a Function of Different Dimensions of Social Identity

Abstract: This article aims to classify social identity-based theories of intergroup differentiation in terms of different dimensions of social identity to understand further the motivational bases of intergroup differentiation. For this purpose, I attempt to incorporate three lines of research in social psychology: (a) theories examining intergroup differentiation as a function of social identity, namely social identity theory and SCT; (b) studies suggesting social identity as a multidimensional construct; and (c) motivational theories of intergroup differentiation, namely subjective uncertainty reduction theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, and self-esteem hypothesis. It is suggested that subjective uncertainty reduction theory explains motivational basis of cognitive dimension, that optimal distinctiveness theory explains motivational basis of emotional dimension, and that self-esteem hypothesis explains motivational basis of evaluative dimension of social identity. Finally, the relationships between motivations of intergroup differentiation as a function of different dimensions of social identity are considered.

Exploring the universality of personality judgments: Evidence from the great transformation (1000 BCE–200 BCE)

Abstract: We examined whether personality judgments were present in texts of the diverse religious and philosophical traditions that emerged during the Great Transformation, an era spanning roughly 1000 BCE ...

A Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler's Decision Making as Commander in Chief: Summa Confidentia et Nimius Metus

Abstract: This study is an attempt to analyze Hitler's decision making during World War II. Based on detailed historical sources, we specifically analyzed Hitler's decision-making failures and investigated t...

The Return of the Anal Character

Abstract: The anal character is a central concept in the psychoanalytic theory of personality. It was originally described in the first decade of the 20th century, and quickly applied to the analysis of clin...

Seeing Minds in Behavior: Descriptive Mentalism:

Abstract: One of the core debates in the history of psychology is about the relationship between mind and behavior, or at least between particular mental phenomenon and associated behavioral phenomenon. Desc...

Abstracting Grammar from Social–Cognitive Foundations: A Developmental Sketch of Learning:

Abstract: Although the understanding of the development of infants’ social cognition and cooperative reasoning has progressed significantly, to date, it has yet to be worked through in any detail how this knowledge interacts with and constrains emerging syntactic representations. This review is a step in that direction, aiming to offer a more integrated account of the learning mechanisms that support linguistic generalizations. First, I review the developmental literature that suggests social–cognitive foundations get linguistic constructions “off the ground.” Second, I focus on building layers of abstractions on top of this foundation and the kind of cognitive processes that are involved. Crucially important in this explanation will be the fact that humans possess a unique set of social–cognitive and social motivational-skills that allows language to happen. Furthermore, early linguistic categories are formed around the underlying functional core of concepts and on the basis of their communicative discourse function. This, combined with powerful pattern-detection skills, enables distributional regularities in the input to be paired with what the speakers intend to communicate.

Playing cards with Thomas Kuhn: A critical reexamination of the Bruner and Postman (1949) experiment.

Abstract: Two experiments replicated Bruner and Postman (1949), on which Kuhn (1962, 1970) relied in his argument that humans resist experience that is incongruous with their expectations—an argument essenti...