Showing papers in "Science and Public Policy in 1999"
TL;DR: Two paradoxes form the nucleus of the problems of scientific expertise and policy-making as discussed by the authors : the simultaneous scientification of politics and the politicisation of science, and the fact that despite the loss of authority of science expertise, policy-makers do not abandon their reliance on existing advisory arrangements, nor do the scholars adapt their ideas on science and its relation to politics.
Abstract: Two paradoxes form the nucleus of the problems of scientific expertise and policy-making. The first is the simultaneous scientification of politics and the politicisation of science. This has destructive effects: the increased use of scientific expertise by policy-makers has not increased the degree of certainty, in fact it becomes delegitimating. This gives rise to the second paradox: despite the loss of authority of scientific expertise, policy-makers do not abandon their reliance on existing advisory arrangements, nor do the scholars adapt their ideas on science and its relation to politics. How can this stability be achieved? How can science-politics be institutionalised? Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
439 citations
TL;DR: Consensus conferences and scenario workshops have been developed in Denmark within a democratic perspective that assumes it is both possible and necessary to establish a dialogue with citizens about technology politics as discussed by the authors, where the citizens have the role of a citizen panel, which will set the agenda for the conference.
Abstract: Consensus conferences and scenario workshops have been developed in Denmark within a democratic perspective that assumes it is both possible and necessary to establish a dialogue with citizens about technology politics. In consensus conferences, the citizens have the role of a citizen panel, which will set the agenda for the conference. In scenario workshops, a group of citizens interacts with other actors to exchange knowledge and experience, develop common visions and produce a plan of action. The focus of both methods is to create a framework for dialogue among policy-makers, experts and ordinary citizens. Both methods are also characterised by their ability to create new knowledge.
260 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors link the paradox that the increasing scientification of politics leads to a politicisation of science, and argue that scientists offered their capabilities as speaking truth to power, and that this input has been transformed into an argumentative policy analysis.
Abstract: In an historical overview, this paper links to the paradox that the increasing scientification of politics leads to a politicisation of science. For a long time, scientists offered their capabilities as ‘speaking truth to power’. Since the beginning of the 1990s, this input has been transformed into an argumentative policy analysis. This reinvigorates political prudence as ‘making sense together’
252 citations
TL;DR: It seems that the general public is somewhat disillusioned with science and technology and is demanding greater participation in important decisions as to their application in everyday life as discussed by the authors, and that the principles of equality between scientists and non-scientists and informed public debate as the preconditions for forging socially sustainable public policies need to be translated into new processes of deliberative democracy.
Abstract: It seems that the general public is somewhat disillusioned with science and technology and is demanding greater participation in important decisions as to their application in everyday life. Ideals of equality between scientists and non-scientists and of informed public debate as the preconditions for forging socially sustainable public policies need to be translated into new processes of deliberative democracy. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
212 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the ability of citizens to participate meaningfully in an age dominated by complex technologies and expert decisions, and take active steps to integrate participatory inquiry formally into technological policy and decision-making.
Abstract: Far too little systematic attention has been devoted to the ability of citizens to participate meaningfully in an age dominated by complex technologies and expert decisions. Citizen protests against technological threats have led to practices of participatory inquiry that allow people to voice opinions on issues that directly affect their lives. The implied extra time and cost of the inquiry process has been worth while in many instances. More active steps should be taken to integrate the approach formally into technological policy and decision-making. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
97 citations
TL;DR: Public participation has become something of a phenomenon in science and technology public policy-and decision-making as discussed by the authors and is at present characterised by a rich conceptual, methodological and practical diversity, the expansion into new thematic, institutional and socio-cultural areas, and an increasing recognition amongst relevant public institutions.
Abstract: Public participation has become something of a phenomenon in science and technology public policy- and decision-making. The issue is at present characterised by a rich conceptual, methodological and practical diversity, the expansion into new thematic, institutional and socio-cultural areas, and an increasing recognition amongst relevant public institutions. Far from being static and saturated, it is driven by continuing development. This special issue was put together with a view to offering an introduction into, and a broad overview of, both different theoretical and practical perspectives on public participation.
91 citations
TL;DR: In this article, it is argued that the functions that society commonly attributes to the university are beginning to be shared with a wide range of institutions in the context of knowledge-based economies, so that the university is faced with demands that require a strengthening of its ability to create and disseminate knowledge.
Abstract: This paper draws on recent conceptual approaches to economic growth, in which the accumulation of knowledge is the fundamental driving force behind growth, to examine the contemporary role of the university. It suggests that the functions that society commonly attributes to the university are beginning to be shared with a wide range of institutions in the context of the knowledge-based economies, so that the university is faced with demands that require a strengthening of its ability to create and disseminate knowledge. While the role of universities is in need of some rethinking, their institutional integrity must be preserved. To cope with the variety of demands and a continuously changing environment, it is argued that the higher-education system needs to be diversified. Specific policy proposals are made in terms of institutional arrangements that assure diversity, while maintaining institutional integrity.
81 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the societal context of technology assessment and the reasons underlying recent calls for participation in technology policy, and what role can participation be expected to play in modern, technological society.
Abstract: This paper discusses the societal context of technology assessment and the reasons underlying recent calls for participation. Participatory technology assessment is analysed in the light of current sociological debate about ‘uncertainty’, and its functional role is considered in relation to public controversy and decision-making on science and technology. Three key questions are addressed: what are the reasons given for using participation in technology assessment processes? which features of modern society have prompted the increasing demands for participation in technology policy? and what role can participation be expected to play in modern, technological society? Participatory technology assessment, as a response to technological controversy, should be understood as a means of dealing, in creative and interactive ways, with the issue of (scientific, social, ethical…) uncertainty at the heart of modern society. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
77 citations
TL;DR: The role of science in policy controversies was discussed in this article, where policy analysis has found that some of the most intractable controversies are trapped in a "dialogue of the deaf" where the boundaries between science and politics are blurred.
Abstract: This paper discusses the role of science in policy controversies. Policy analysis has found that some of the most intractable controversies are trapped in a ‘dialogue of the deaf’. In the dialogues of the deaf on ‘wicked problems’ the boundaries between science and politics are blurred. Thus, they pose a clear empirical corroboration of the scientification of politics and the politicisation of science. Policy analysis needs to go beyond these claims however, as its raison d'etre lies in the improvement of policy-making. How can we deal with these dialogues of the deaf and what role has science to play in this? Should we not focus more on democratic or market-like approaches, as science apparently cannot come to grips with these issues? This paper concludes by connecting these insights from policy analysis to the paradoxes of science in politics. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
64 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a review of these surveys, which divide up into groups reflecting a range of different theoretical approaches to innovation, and highlight the difficulties of comparison that they entail.
Abstract: Having been ignored for a long time, innovation in services is now the object of institutional surveys at both the national and international level. The aim of the present article is to review these surveys, which divide up into groups reflecting a range of different theoretical approaches to innovation. It also attempts to examine (and to interpret in theoretical terms) the methodological limits of these studies, and in particular to highlight the difficulties of comparison that they entail.
59 citations
TL;DR: The concept of procedural justice could act as a rich and useful source of theoretical inspiration and practical experience in science and technology public policy-and decision-making as mentioned in this paper, and its understanding of the functional relationship between policy and decision processes, their social environments and their outcomes could add a refreshing new perspective on traditional ways of thinking in a field which has long been dominated by "technocratic" discourse.
Abstract: The concept of procedural justice could act as a rich and useful source of theoretical inspiration and practical experience in science and technology public policy- and decision-making. Its understanding of the functional relationship between policy and decision processes, their social environments and their outcomes, its interest in the fairness aspect of procedures and its wide range of applications could add a refreshing new perspective on traditional ways of thinking in a field which has long been dominated by ‘technocratic’ discourse. It must take into account that scientific and technological issues are varied and complex, and its application would require the careful, contextual consideration of the scientific-technological issues at stake.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that a participatory element is needed that integrates lay persons (citizens, stakeholders) into the assessment process, and the focus group method is considered as a promising tool to achieve such inclusion.
Abstract: In the last decade, integrated assessment (IA) has become an important approach for synthesising multidisciplinary knowledge about complex environmental phenomena with regard to policy decision-making. So far IA has been performed primarily as an expert exercise. This paper argues that a participatory element is needed that integrates lay persons (citizens, stakeholders) into the assessment process. The focus group method is considered as a promising tool to achieve such inclusion. Characteristics, applications, problems, and opportunities for focus groups in policy-oriented IA are discussed. The insights presented are backed by experiences collected in the context of two large research programmes — the European Union project ULYSSES and the Swiss project CLEAR. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: In this paper, a picture of complex decision-making processes is sketched based on empirical research and a number of quality criteria for decision making are also presented, including satisfaction with the results on the part of the actors involved, and consolidation of the decision making by ensuring consideration of a variety of options, followed by selection on the basis of this variety.
Abstract: A picture of complex decision-making processes is sketched based on empirical research These processes are found to be unpredictable, both in content and in time A number of quality criteria for decision-making are also presented, including satisfaction with the results on the part of the actors involved, and consolidation of the decision-making by ensuring consideration of a variety of options, followed by selection on the basis of this variety Provisions are described which increase the likelihood that research will have an effect on the decision-making process These provisions are contingent, in line with the unpredictability of the processes They promote the creation of ‘negotiated knowledge’ Orderly interplay between the research and decision-making processes is essential to ensure this Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing
TL;DR: The public sphere is a common place in which members of society meet to discuss matters of mutual interest as mentioned in this paper, and it is as tempting to scientists as a jar of honey is to bees.
Abstract: textThe public sphere is a common place in which members of society meet to discuss matters of mutual interest. It as tempting to scientists as a jar of honey is to bees. This is an important role for scientists. To be accountable for possible impliations of research must not be the exception: it should be part of the standard repertoire according to which democratic control is maintained in the public sphere.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare processes of deliberative public participation for climate-compatible energy supply at the Centre of Technology Assessment in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany and demonstrate that these processes deliver results which enrich public debate.
Abstract: Processes of deliberative public participation have been met with high expectations, as well as scepticism. The mounting interest — more than 20 citizens' juries were held in less than two years in Great Britain alone — calls for a critical reflection of the various methods available. To this end, their common characteristics are illustrated and the individual processes are contrasted in this article. The citizen panels on climate-compatible energy supply at the Centre of Technology Assessment in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany are used to demonstrate that these processes deliver results which enrich public debate. New forms of public participation may be an interesting element of political culture in modern pluralistic societies. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: The authors gave an overview of the flows of skills internationally and argued that the qualitative aspects of European emigrants are far more significant than their quantitative aspects, and that Europe might lose its brightest and best; in particular, Europe might be losing the young scientific and technological and managerial personnel.
Abstract: The increased demand internationally for highly skilled personnel and the expansion of international education opportunities will inevitably exercise pressure on the European stock of highly skilled labour. This paper gives an overview of the flows of skills internationally and argues that the qualitative aspects of European emigrants are far more significant than their quantitative aspects. Europe might be losing its brightest and best; in particular, Europe might be losing the young scientific and technological and managerial personnel, probably those with the most up-to-date training. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors acknowledge the reality of the paradox of the simultaneous inflationary use of scientific advice and its politicisation, and they also regard the paradox as being resolvable.
Abstract: There seems to be a legitimisation crisis for both the scientific expert and the policy-maker that arises out of their interaction. The authors in this special issue acknowledge the reality of the paradox of the simultaneous inflationary use of scientific advice and its politicisation. They also regard the paradox as being resolvable. The authority of science is valuable and should somehow be re-established, either at a different level, or by reconstructing the relationship between science and politics. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: In this paper, a new institutional configuration is emerging in which government, industry and academia together target technical problems to open up new technological and economic vistas, eventually creating new companies, industries and jobs.
Abstract: Because of ideological resistance, the USA often pursues industrial policy by indirect means. There are continuing conflicts over the appropriate role of government, industry and academia in innovation: an indirect and decentralized industrial policy may be more effective than traditional direct approaches, since it is better able to take regional differences into account. A new institutional configuration is emerging in which government, industry and academia together target technical problems to open up new technological and economic vistas, eventually creating new companies, industries and jobs. A common collaboration format brings representatives of different institutional spheres together in a bottom-up planning process. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: An electronic consultation was set up for the UK Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing on its draft code of practice on over-the-counter genetic testing, and although the general public was encouraged to make an input, media coverage was disappointing and all responses came from health care professionals.
Abstract: In 1996, an electronic consultation was set up for the UK Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing on its draft code of practice on over-the-counter genetic testing. Although the general public was encouraged to make an input, media coverage was disappointing and all responses came from health care professionals. The chief benefit of electronic consultation is its cost-effectiveness. Opening up the consultation process may help to create awareness in the community of the constraints under which advisory committees work. Problematic issues remain to be resolved, such as the role and status of public input in a system predicated on expert advice. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate the impact of the development of a telematic-based system in the Scottish health service and identify lessons beyond the particularity of the case of maternity care.
Abstract: The adoption of telematics is proceeding at a painfully slow pace in public administrations and health authorities. This paper tells the story of the emergence and benefits of a telematic-based system in the Scottish health service: telemedicine in Edinburgh and Lothian community maternity care. It looks at the role of visions, the strategies adopted, the role of technology and the tactics implemented to get through the fragile early days, creating new balances of power and favourable conditions for sustained growth. The paper evaluates the impact of the development of a telematic-based system in the Scottish health service and identifies lessons beyond the particularity of the case of maternity care. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: This paper explored the micro-dynamics of knowledge-based economies and analyzed the East Asian success stories from the perspective of learning and innovation (L&I) processes, and developed a theoretical framework in order to understand how East Asian companies manage to overcome entry barriers into high-tech industries.
Abstract: A close look at the industrialization processes in East Asia reveals that learning and innovation (L&I) activities became the building blocks of their economic growth and international competitiveness. This article explores the micro-dynamics of knowledge-based economies and analyses the East Asian success stories from the perspective of learning and innovation (L&I) processes. It also develops a theoretical framework in order to understand how East Asian companies manage to overcome entry barriers into high-tech industries. When utilizing this approach in the interpretation of the ‘East Asian miracle’, some empirical regularities emerge, suggesting the existence of learning paths that define the systemic interactions, pace, and direction of learning and innovation activities.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that America's future economic growth is closely tied to the growth of new technology-based firms (NTBFs), and that since 1980, the Federal Government has instituted active policies and programs in support of these dynamic firms.
Abstract: America's future economic growth is closely tied to the growth of new technology-based firms (NTBFs). Since 1980, the Federal Government has instituted active policies and programs in support of these dynamic firms. While these programs only represent a fraction of US total investment in R&D, they have a significant impact. They represent a national commitment to encourage small technology-based businesses to address federal research needs and to create and commercialize new products and processes. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: Although the field of bioinformatics/computational biology appears to be booming universities have been slow to start programs in this area as mentioned in this paper, and four interrelated explanations are examined: individual faculty have no incentive to establish training programs; the educational system responds differently when demand is driven by industry rather than universities; the interdisciplinary nature of the field creates disincentives to establishing programs; and the quick-fix to turn life scientists into computational biologists is not possible.
Abstract: Although the field of bioinformatics/computational biology appears to be booming universities have been slow to start programs in this area. Four interrelated explanations are examined: individual faculty have no incentive to establish training programs; the educational system responds differently when demand is driven by industry rather than universities; the interdisciplinary nature of the field creates disincentives to establishing programs; and the ‘quick-fix’ to turn life scientists into computational biologists is not possible. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that patents or other private appropriation of the results of government-sponsored research can interfere with the transfer of new technologies to the private sector for commercial development, and that university intellectual property protection seekers, laws, and the courts should be careful not to grant patent protection for university-based inventions that is too broad.
Abstract: Exploitation of intellectual property is widely seen as one of the major benefits of federally sponsored research in the United States. Yet patents or other private appropriation of the results of government-sponsored research can interfere with the transfer of new technologies to the private sector for commercial development. To resolve conflicts inherent in private appropriation of government research, university intellectual property protection seekers, laws, and the courts ought to be careful not to grant patent protection for university-based inventions that is too broad. Multiple and competitive sources of technology advance are socially preferable to a structure where there is only one or a few sources. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.
TL;DR: The potential of information and communication technologies to create opportunities for catching up or forging ahead exists but applications must be consistent with the distinctive information and knowledge systems within each developing country and their development priorities.
Abstract: Developing countries must find innovative ways of combining their existing experience and skills with the production and consumption of information and communication technology-related products and services in order to benefit from the potential advantages for social and economic development. The new applications can be employed as 'tools' for development, but their effective use requires substantial investment in both the technical and the social infrastructure. The potential of information and communication technologies to create opportunities for catching up or forging ahead exists but applications must be consistent with the distinctive information and knowledge systems within each developing country and their development priorities.
TL;DR: The authors explored three economic factors associated with these observed trends: the establishment and growth of public policies designed and initiated to encourage women to enter graduate studies in science, specific unexpected events that bring widespread attention to the accomplishments of women in science; and financial incentives to encourage the pursuit of a science-related career.
Abstract: The number and percentage of degrees awarded to women by US academic institutions has increased since 1996. This paper explores three economic factors associated with these observed trends: the establishment and growth of public policies designed and initiated to encourage women to enter graduate studies in science; specific unexpected events that bring widespread attention to the accomplishments of women in science; and financial incentives to encourage the pursuit of a science-related career. The findings suggest that all three factors are significant. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.