Showing papers in "Sex Roles in 2008"
TL;DR: The notion that social identities and social inequality based on ethnicity, sexual orientation, and sex/gender are intersectional rather than additive poses a variety of thorny methodological challenges as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The notion that social identities and social inequality based on ethnicity, sexual orientation, and sex/gender are intersectional rather than additive poses a variety of thorny methodological challenges. Using research with Black lesbians (Bowleg, manuscripts in preparation; Bowleg et al., Journal of Lesbian Studies, 2008; Bowleg et al., Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 10:229–240, 2004; Bowleg et al., Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7:87–108, 2003) as a foundation, I examine how these challenges shape measurement, analysis, and interpretation. I argue that a key dilemma for intersectionality researchers is that the additive (e.g., Black + Lesbian + Woman) versus intersectional (e.g., Black Lesbian Woman) assumption inherent in measurement and qualitative and quantitative data analyses contradicts the central tenet of intersectionality: social identities and inequality are interdependent for groups such as Black lesbians, not mutually exclusive. In light of this, interpretation becomes one of the most substantial tools in the intersectionality researcher’s methodological toolbox.
1,396 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the intersectionality perspective in empirical research on gender and propose a best practices resource that provides models for when and how intersectionality can inform theory and be incorporated into empirical research.
Abstract: Intersectionality, the mutually constitutive relations among social identities, is a central tenet of feminist thinking and has transformed how gender is conceptualized in research. In this special issue, we focus on the intersectionality perspective in empirical research on gender. Our goal is to offer a “best practices” resource that provides models for when and how intersectionality can inform theory and be incorporated into empirical research on psychological questions at individual, interpersonal, and social structural levels. I briefly summarize the development of the intersectionality perspective, and then review how the realization of its promise has been diverted by preoccupation with intersectionality as a methodological challenge. I conclude with a discussion of why intersectionality is an urgent issue for researchers invested in promoting positive social change.
1,273 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of intersectional invisibility is developed and evidence from historical narratives, cultural representations, interest-group politics, and anti-discrimination legal frameworks is used to illustrate its utility.
Abstract: The hypothesis that possessing multiple subordinate-group identities renders a person “invisible” relative to those with a single subordinate-group identity is developed. We propose that androcentric, ethnocentric, and heterocentric ideologies will cause people who have multiple subordinate-group identities to be defined as non-prototypical members of their respective identity groups. Because people with multiple subordinate-group identities (e.g., ethnic minority woman) do not fit the prototypes of their respective identity groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, women), they will experience what we have termed “intersectional invisibility.” In this article, our model of intersectional invisibility is developed and evidence from historical narratives, cultural representations, interest-group politics, and anti-discrimination legal frameworks is used to illustrate its utility. Implications for social psychological theory and research are discussed.
1,065 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a scale of prejudice against transgender individuals was developed, validated, and contrasted with a homophobia measure in 153 female and 157 male US college undergraduates and found that transphobia and homophobia were highly correlated with each other and with right-wing authoritarianism, religious fundamentalism, and hostile sexism.
Abstract: A scale of prejudice against transgender individuals was developed, validated, and contrasted with a homophobia measure in 153 female and 157 male US college undergraduates. For both sexes, transphobia and homophobia were highly correlated with each other and with right-wing authoritarianism, religious fundamentalism, and hostile sexism, but aggression proneness was predictive of transphobia and homophobia only in men. Benevolent sexism and rape myth acceptance were more predictive of transphobia and homophobia in women than men. With homophobia partialled out, authoritarianism, fundamentalism, and aggression proneness no longer predicted transphobia for men, but authoritarianism, fundamentalism, benevolent sexism, and rape myth acceptance continued to predict transphobia in women. Discussion focused on gender differences in issues that drive prejudice against transgender and homosexual individuals.
409 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a best practices guide for researchers interested in applying intersectionality theory to psychological research is provided, focusing on when to focus on "master" identities versus "emergent" identities.
Abstract: This paper serves as a “best practices guide” for researchers interested in applying intersectionality theory to psychological research. Intersectionality, the mutually constitutive relations among social identities, presents several issues to researchers interested in applying it to research. I highlight three central issues and provide guidelines for how to address them. First, I discuss the constraints in the number of identities that researchers are able to test in an empirical study, and highlight relevant decision rules. Second, I discuss when to focus on “master” identities (e.g., gender) versus “emergent” identities (i.e., White lesbian). Third, I argue that treating identity as a process situated within social structural contexts facilitates the research process. I end with a brief discussion of the implications for the study of intersectionality.
403 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that women who viewed advertisements featuring a thin-idealized woman reported greater state self-objectification, weight-related appearance anxiety, negative mood, and body dissatisfaction than participants who viewed product control advertisements.
Abstract: Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206, 1997) contends that experiences of sexual objectification socialize women to engage in self-objectification. The present study used an experimental design to examine the effects of media images on self-objectification. A total of 90 Australian undergraduate women aged 18 to 35 were randomly allocated to view magazine advertisements featuring a thin woman, advertisements featuring a thin woman with at least one attractive man, or advertisements in which no people were featured. Participants who viewed advertisements featuring a thin-idealized woman reported greater state self-objectification, weight-related appearance anxiety, negative mood, and body dissatisfaction than participants who viewed product control advertisements. The results demonstrate that self-objectification can be stimulated in women without explicitly focusing attention on their own bodies.
397 citations
TL;DR: This paper explored how women define their gender identities in relation to men through consumption of alcohol and found that women viewed binge drinking as a routine, normal part of everyday life, while other drunk women were viewed as deviant and breaking traditional codes of femininity.
Abstract: Young adults in Western countries are drinking more alcohol than ever before, particularly young women. This study aimed to explore how women are (re)defining their gender identities in relation to men through consumption of alcohol. Eight friendship discussion groups were conducted in Auckland, New Zealand, with 16 women and 16 men aged 20–29 years. Participants viewed binge drinking as a routine, normal part of everyday life. Women’s drinking was linked to pleasure and fun, with positive descriptions of female participants who were frequently intoxicated. However, other drunk women were positioned as deviant and breaking traditional codes of femininity. Findings are discussed in terms of women’s changing social positions and the accomplishment of gender identities through local communities of practice.
267 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that intersectionality provides a generative approach for interpreting these experiences of gender multiplicity, and apply the framework of intersectionality to understand their exploration of transgendered experience and identification.
Abstract: Dichotomous models of gender have been criticized for failing to represent the experiences of individuals who claim neither an unambiguously female nor male identity. In this paper we argue that the feminist theoretical framework of intersectionality provides a generative approach for interpreting these experiences of gender multiplicity. We review our previous research on four young sexual-minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) women who are participants in a 10-year longitudinal study of sexual identity development, applying the framework of intersectionality to understand their exploration of transgendered experience and identification. Our analysis highlights the value of intersectionality as a framework for understanding not only multiplicity across identity constructs (e.g.., race, gender, etc.) but also within identity constructs (i.e., female and male).
256 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a sample of 522 middle and high school students from a school district in a northeastern state in the U.S. was used to address two questions about bullying and sexual harassment: Is one more frequent than the other, and are there gender or sexual orientation differences in this regard? And, does one have greater adverse health effects than another, and, if so, for whom?
Abstract: A sample of 522 middle and high school students from a school district in a northeastern state in the U.S. was used to address two questions about bullying and sexual harassment: Is one more frequent than the other, and are there gender or sexual orientation differences in this regard? And, does one have greater adverse health effects than the other, and, if so, for whom? Bullying occurred more frequently than sexual harassment for both girls and boys but not among sexual minorities. Girls were bullied or harassed as frequently as boys, but sexual minorities experienced higher levels of both. Compared to bullying, sexual harassment had adverse effects on more health outcomes. These adverse effects were especially notable among girls and sexual minorities.
251 citations
TL;DR: This paper used the concept of coalition to theorize an alternative to categorical approaches to intersectionality based on review of an archive of oral history interviews with feminist activists who engage in coalitional work.
Abstract: This conceptual paper uses the concept of coalition to theorize an alternative to categorical approaches to intersectionality based on review of an archive of oral history interviews with feminist activists who engage in coalitional work. Two complementary themes were identified: the challenge of defining similarity in order to draw members of diverse groups together, and the need to address power differentials in order to maintain a working alliance. Activists’ narratives suggest intersectionality is not only a tool for understanding difference, but also a way to illuminate less obvious similarities. This shift requires that we think about social categories in terms of stratification brought about through practices of individuals, institutions and cultures rather than only as characteristics of individuals. Implications of these themes for research practices are discussed.
231 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that approximately 40% reported experiences of heterosexist harassment (HH) in the past year, and those who encountered both ambient and personal HH reported worse psychological and academic well-being than those who experienced no HH.
Abstract: Previous research has suggested that overt hostility against sexual minorities is associated with decrements in their well-being. However, subtler forms of heterosexism and their potential effects have been overlooked, heterosexuals have not been asked how they fare in a heterosexist environment, and no research has examined whether women and men might respond differently to heterosexism. Data from 3,128 northwestern US university students (representing all sexual orientations) address these gaps. Approximately 40% reported experiences of heterosexist harassment (HH) in the past year, and those who encountered both ambient and personal HH reported worse psychological and academic well-being than those who encountered no HH. Similar patterns of findings held for sexual minorities and heterosexuals, and for women and men.
TL;DR: This article examined the depiction of women in 1,988 advertisements from 58 popular U.S. magazines and found that women appeared as victims in just under ten percent of the advertisements.
Abstract: This content analysis examined the depiction of women in 1,988 advertisements from 58 popular U.S. magazines. Advertisements were coded with respect to whether women were presented as sex objects and/or as victims using a scheme developed by the researchers. On average across magazines, one of two advertisements that featured women portrayed them as sex objects. Women appeared as victims in just under ten percent of the advertisements. Men’s, women’s fashion, and female adolescent magazines were more likely to portray women as sex objects and as victims than news and business, special interest, or women’s non-fashion magazines. The implications of viewing advertisements depicting women as sex objects and as victims, especially sexualized victims, are discussed.
TL;DR: This article examined how two groups of heterosexual high school US football players alter differently the construction of heterosexuality and masculinity after joining collegiate cheerleading and found that participants from both groups make masculinity accessible to gay men before next describing how they reconcile heterosexuality with limited forms of same-sex sex.
Abstract: Using in-depth interviews and participant observations, I examine how two groups of heterosexual high school US football players alter differently the construction of heterosexuality and masculinity after joining collegiate cheerleading. First, I show that informants from both groups make masculinity accessible to gay men before next describing how they reconcile heterosexuality with limited forms of same-sex sex. Forty-percent of the heterosexual men I interview confirm engaging in same-sex sex, although they differently frame the requirements for it. I suggest these findings have various meaning for the relationship between sexuality and masculinity, as both groups somewhat strengthen and contest the borders of heterosexuality and masculinity. These findings beckon consideration as to how the relationship among sport, sexuality, and homophobia is changing.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined a theoretical model describing the relationships between body shame and body surveillance, internalization of the media body ideal, perceived pressure from media, body mass index and body dissatisfaction in Swiss adolescent boys and girls.
Abstract: The aim of the present study was to examine a theoretical model describing the relationships between body shame and body surveillance (components of objectified body consciousness), internalization of the media body ideal, perceived pressure from media, body mass index and body dissatisfaction in Swiss adolescent boys and girls. A sample of 819 boys and 791 girls aged 14–16 years completed self-report measures of the mentioned concepts. As expected, girls had higher body shame and body surveillance than boys. Structural equation modelling supported the proposed model in both boys and girls. The findings suggest processes that may contribute to body dissatisfaction.
TL;DR: This article investigated how 3D and 2D computer game practice and delivery as well as individual differences affect performance on two tests of mental rotation (Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and card rotation test).
Abstract: This study investigated how 3-D and 2-D computer game practice and delivery as well as individual differences affect performance on two tests of mental rotation (Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and Card Rotation Test). Sixty-one US undergraduates from the Midwest completed 4 h of either massed or distributed practice. While computer game practice improved mental rotation scores in general, women’s gains were significantly greater than men’s, and the most significant gains were accomplished when practice was massed. High mathematical ability, gender, and type of practice significantly predicted improvement scores. The findings suggest that even very minimal computer game practice may improve performance on mental rotation tasks.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that political, functional, and social pressures will call into question the legitimacy of the institutionalized nature of gender inequality in sport organizations, and these pressures are then thought to result in employee commitment to and behavioral support for gender diversity initiatives.
Abstract: Past diversity frameworks have focused on the desired end state of diversity management strategies (i.e., cultures that value diversity and capitalize on the benefits that differences can bring to the organization) but have largely failed to highlight the methods of creating such change. A model is proposed that addresses this gap in the literature. Specifically, I argue that political, functional, and social pressures will call into question the legitimacy of the institutionalized nature of gender inequality in sport organizations. These pressures are then thought to result in employee commitment to and behavioral support for gender diversity initiatives. The relationship between the pressures for deinstitutionalization and commitment to gender diversity are thought to be moderated by four factors: the presence of change teams, education, top management support, and systemic integration. Contributions and future directions are discussed.
TL;DR: This article examined whether intersecting racial and gender identities affect person perception and found that intersectionality affects person perception processes, leading to gender categorization errors for Black women, and women are perceived as unattractive proportionally to their perceived masculinity, leading Black women to be rated as less attractive than other women.
Abstract: Our research examines whether intersecting racial and gender identities affect person perception. Predominantly White undergraduates (292) from a large northeastern U.S. university categorized and rated pictures (Study 1) and videos (Study 2) of Black and White men and women. We supported three hypotheses: 1) intersectionality affects person perception processes, leading to gender categorization errors for Black women; 2) “Blackness” and “maleness” are highly associated for Black male and female targets; and, 3) women are perceived as unattractive proportionally to their perceived masculinity, leading Black women to be rated as less attractive than other women. We suggest that intersectional approaches are required in order to fully understand person perception. Further, the Black/male association may lead to unique harms for Black women.
TL;DR: The authors investigated whether recent improvements in the status of women in Hong Kong are reflected in patterns of gender representation in secondary English textbooks and found that women appeared more frequently in the former, and that greater use was made of gender-inclusive pronouns and the neutral address title Ms.
Abstract: This paper seeks to investigate whether recent improvements in the status of women in Hong Kong are reflected in patterns of gender representation in Hong Kong secondary English textbooks. A comparison of ten recently published books which are currently in use with ten published in the late 1980s/early 1990s and no longer in use revealed that women appeared more frequently in the former, and that greater use was made of gender-inclusive pronouns and the neutral address title Ms. Nevertheless some writers, it was found, continue to perpetuate the stereotyped image of women as weaker than men, and as operating primarily within domestic rather than social domains. The "male-first" phenomenon and the visual under-representation of women are still prevalent in recent textbooks.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the prevalence and effects of rape myths in newspaper headlines and found that women were more likely to hold rape-supportive attitudes than men exposed to myth-endorsing headlines.
Abstract: The present research investigated the prevalence and effects of rape myths in newspaper headlines. In study 1, a content analysis of online news headlines from US media (N = 555) surrounding the 2003–2004 Kobe Bryant sexual assault case showed that 10% endorsed a rape myth. In study 2, students at a mid-sized university in the mid-western USA (N = 154) read headlines endorsing or not endorsing rape myths. Male participants exposed to myth-endorsing headlines were (a) less likely to think Bryant was guilty than those exposed to non-myth headlines, (b) more likely to hold rape-supportive attitudes than those exposed to non-myth headlines, and (c) more likely to hold rape-supportive attitudes than were female participants exposed to myth-endorsing headlines.
TL;DR: In this paper, the definitions of manhood provided by a US sample of 36 adult, working class Latinos who identify as feminist, and have attended institutions of higher education were analyzed using an intersectional framework.
Abstract: This qualitative study analyzes the definitions of manhood provided by a US sample of 36 adult, working class Latinos who identify as feminist, and have attended institutions of higher education. Using an intersectional framework, we analyze in-depth interviews and address the research questions "To what extent did participants identify with their gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and class background? How did participants subjectively define what it means to be a man?". Results indicate that participants identified with their significant social groups to varying degrees. Manhood was defined in relational, ethical, and counter-hegemonic ways. Our discussion examines the way participants wove in and out of discourses related to hegemonic notions of manhood deemed as positive, while simultaneously rejecting aspects of hegemonic masculinity.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined associations among self-objectification, body shame, and two indicators of well-being (i.e., self-esteem and satisfaction with life) in a path analytic model.
Abstract: Research on objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts in Psychology of Women Quarterly 21:173–206, 1997) has demonstrated relations among self-objectification, body shame, and negative health outcomes. Less research has focused on the relation of self-objectification to indicators of well-being. We examined associations among self-objectification, body shame, and two indicators of well-being (i.e., self-esteem and satisfaction with life) in a path analytic model. We also tested explicitly whether body shame mediated the relation between self-objectification and self-esteem and whether self-esteem mediated the relation between body shame and life satisfaction. Female undergraduates (N = 227) from the United States completed questionnaires assessing the constructs of interest. Results indicated that the proposed model fit the data and that body shame and self-esteem mediated as predicted. Implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: This paper explored associations among parental sexual orientation, parental gender-related attitudes, parental divi- sion of labor, and children's gender development and found that parents' attitudes and behaviors were more strongly associated with children' gender development than was their sexual orientation.
Abstract: Research on children of lesbian parents has sug- gested that such children are developing well, but questions have been raised about their gender development. In this study, we explored associations among parental sexual orientation, parental gender-related attitudes, parental divi- sion of labor, and children's gender development. Partic- ipants were 66 preschool children and their 132 parents from the East Coast of the United States. Thirty-three families were headed by lesbian and 33 by heterosexual couples. Parents who divided paid and unpaid labor more unequally had children whose occupational aspirations were also more traditional. Measures of children's gender development were generally unrelated to parental sexual orientation. Parents' attitudes and behaviors were more strongly associated with children's gender development than was parental sexual orientation.
TL;DR: In this paper, semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed to investigate how seven gymnasts and seven softball players competing in NCAA Division I athletics view and contend with a "female/athlete paradox".
Abstract: Although sport access for females has greatly improved, certain behaviors continue to be considered more or less appropriate for females depending upon how compatible they are with biologically or socially constructed female characteristics. However, young women who have grown up playing sports and continue participation at the college level have constructed meanings about being a young woman and an athlete. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed to investigate how seven gymnasts and seven softball players competing in NCAA Division I athletics view and contend with a “female/athlete paradox.” These women recognized preferred femininity and at times constructed images based on this notion. However, they also embraced their athleticism and felt at ease choosing not to perform femininity in some contexts.
TL;DR: This article conducted a qualitative study with 72 14- to 15-year-olds and 7 teachers to discover whether interviewer use of neutral language in gender-segregated focus groups and interviews would yield material indicating that the victimization of girls by boys is sexualized.
Abstract: School-based sexual harassment of adolescent girls by boys appears commonplace, yet aggression and bullying studies rarely yield sexualized material. This qualitative Australian study with 72 14- to 15-year-olds and 7 teachers aimed to discover whether interviewer use of neutral language in gender-segregated focus groups and interviews would yield material indicating that the victimization of girls by boys is sexualized. Verbal and indirect victimization were reported to be everyday occurrences, and almost entirely sexual. Findings are discussed in the light of definitions of sexual harassment, bullying and aggression. It is concluded that the term “sexual bullying” appropriately captures the gendered power structure underlying these behaviors. As such, they need to be understood, and become visible, more broadly than in terms of individual pathology.
TL;DR: The authors developed a conceptual definition and measurement instrument for the mythology regarding male sexual harassment of women, resulting in the 20-item Illinois Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance Scale (ISHMA) Scale.
Abstract: Using rape myth research as a template, we developed a conceptual definition and measurement instrument for the mythology regarding male sexual harassment of women, resulting in the 20-item Illinois Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance (ISHMA) Scale. Surveys from 337 students in the Midwestern region of the United States revealed that this measure consists of four factors, which share predicted relationships with rape mythology, sexism, hostility toward women, traditional attitudes toward women, and ideological support for the feminist movement. We also found that women and individuals with prior training on sexual harassment reject these myths more than men and untrained individuals. It is hoped that this new definition, conceptualization, and measure will advance knowledge on attitudes that support and perpetuate violence against women.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the power of a brief intervention to correct these cognitive distortions in Southeastern U.S. undergraduate samples of unacquainted (N = 65; 86.2% Caucasian) and acquainted males (n = 63, 82% Caucasian).
Abstract: College males’ overestimation of peers’ sexism may result in reluctance to challenge these toxic attitudes. Researchers investigated the power of a brief intervention to correct these cognitive distortions in Southeastern U.S. undergraduate samples of unacquainted (N = 65; 86.2% Caucasian) and acquainted males (N = 63; 82% Caucasian). Participants first reported selfperceptions of attitudes toward women and then estimated the attitudes of other men present. Intervention participants attended brief presentations that included feedback on discrepancies between actual and perceived norms within their groups. At 3 week follow up, there was a significant decrease in perceptions of peers’ sexism for intervention groups, indicating that a brief intervention may be useful in sexism reduction.
TL;DR: In this paper, a qualitative life course perspective was employed to examine the experiences of seventeen head coach mothers in NCAA institutions, focusing on the participants' historical/social context, biography, relationships, interplay between these factors and most importantly the role of administrators as life linkages.
Abstract: Despite the progress women have made since the inception of Title IX, many still face discrimination in the sport workplace. Given the assumption that time-use is gendered, the traditional culture of US intercollegiate sport stands in sharp contrast to the evolving notion of work-life balance. This study employed a qualitative life course perspective to examine the experiences of seventeen head coach mothers in NCAA institutions. Results focus on the participants’ historical/social context, biography, relationships, interplay between these factors, and most importantly the role of administrators as life linkages. The results suggest that it is insufficient for managers to view the employee in isolation or to neglect the organizational culture in athletics. Supervisor attention to this, while time and effort-intensive, can impact employee well-being.
TL;DR: The authors explored how women's life experiences influenced their beliefs and how those beliefs in turn influenced feminist self-identification, and found that life experiences may serve as a catalyst for both feminist selfidentification and collective action.
Abstract: The present study sought to explore how women's life experiences influenced their beliefs, and how those beliefs in turn influenced feminist self-identification. Additionally, we sought to determine whether feminist self-identification led to increased collective action on behalf of women. Female participants (N = 282) from two US college campuses and online listservs completed an online survey assessing feminist self-identification, collective action, and life experiences. Conservative, liberal, and radical beliefs were assessed as were evaluations of feminists. A structural equation model was used to explore these relationships; life experiences were found to influence women's beliefs, which in turn influenced feminist self-identification, which influenced collective action. We found that life experiences may serve as a catalyst for both feminist self-identification and collective action.
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of relationship power (equal or low), partner type (serious or casual), and gender on difficulty implementing condom use was explored using experimental vignettes, and the consistency of these findings with the predictions of the theory and methodological limitations are discussed.
Abstract: The primary goal of this study was to experimentally investigate the theory of gender and power (Wingood and DiClemente, Health Education and Behavior 27:539–565, 2000) in order to better understand gender differences in condom use behavior. The influence of relationship power (equal or low), partner-type (serious or casual), and gender on difficulty implementing condom use was explored using experimental vignettes. Heterosexual, sexually active, undergraduate students from a private university in the United States (N = 203) indicated how “difficult” it would be to implement condom use in a variety of situations. Results revealed a significant main effect for power and partner-type, qualified by a significant three-way interaction. The consistency of these findings with the predictions of the theory and methodological limitations are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors found that questions about racial identity tapped into a discourse that constructs and stereotypes criminals as occupying social positions defined by race, class and gender, particularly for African Americans, and the concept of intersectionality illuminates the cultural construction of police encounters with citizens in terms of poor black men.
Abstract: Middle-aged black and white graduates of a Midwestern US high school responded to interview questions about race and racial identity. Their answers included descriptions of police harassment and crime, and focused on those considered to be criminal actors: most often apparently poor, black men. Qualitative analysis of 38 interviews showed that questions about racial identity tapped into a discourse that constructs and stereotypes criminals as occupying social positions defined by race, class and gender, particularly for African Americans. The concept of intersectionality illuminates the cultural construction of police encounters with citizens in terms of poor black men, and the specific nature of the stories of racial identity told—and not told—by respondents with different race, class and gender identities.