Showing papers in "Social and Personality Psychology Compass in 2007"

Self-Regulation, Ego Depletion, and Motivation

Abstract: Motivation is underappr eciated in self-r egulation theories (as is tr ue in social personality psychology at large). This paper reviews the role of motivation in the context of the strength, or limited-resource, model of self-control in several domains. Sacrificing one desire in order to pursue another is more difficult when the incipient response is strongly motivated, a notion that highlights the struggle between urges and restraints. A reduction in ego resources can be temporarily overcome by strong motivation – nevertheless, ego depletion is not solely a loss of motivation: Recent experiments indicate that regulatory resources are rooted in physical energy stores. Motivational conflicts, especially the clash between selfish motives and behaviors that promote social acceptance, set the stage for the necessity of self-regulation and the circumstances in which ego depletion is most likely. Self-regulation is the self ’s capacity for altering its behaviors. It greatly increases the flexibility and adaptability of human behavior, enabling people to adjust their actions to a remarkably broad range of social and situational demands. It is an important basis for the popular conception of free will and for socially desirable behavior. It provides benefits to the individual and to society, and indeed good self-control seems to contribute to a great many desirable outcomes, including task performance, school and work success, popularity, mental health and adjustment, and good interpersonal relationships (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1994; Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Mischel, Shoda, & P eake, 1988; Shoda, Mischel, & P eake, 1990; Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004;Wolfe & Johnson, 1995). Motivation is underappreciated in psychology generally, no doubt partly because the cognitive revolution of recent decades has induced the majority of r esearchers to think in co gnitive rather than motivational terms. Motivation’s role in self-regulation has been similarly underestimated. This article seeks to remedy that deficiency. It will examine the multiple ways that motivation is relevant to self-regulation. The relevance to self-regulation spans a wide range, from the confluence of motivation and self-regulation (as in the motivation to engage in self-regulation) to their conflict (as when self-regulation is used to restrain motivation).

Ostracism: The kiss of social death.

Abstract: To be ostracized is to be ignored and excluded. How does ostracism affect individuals? Considerable research has now shown that the initial (reflexive) reactions to even the most minimal forms of ostracism are painful and distressing. Fundamental needs of belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaningful existence are thwarted; sadness and anger increase. These effects emerge despite individual differences or situational factors that should lead logically to easy dismissal. With time to appraise the ostracism episode, individuals become differentially sensitized based on (i) the specific needs that are thwarted, (ii) their own individual differences, and (iii) their assessment of who ostracizes and why. These differences lead to need-restorative behaviors that range from being overly socially attentive and susceptible to influence to being aggressive and antisocial.

Toward More Creative and Innovative Group Idea Generation: A Cognitive‐Social‐Motivational Perspective of Brainstorming

Abstract: In many meetings and work sessions, group members exchange ideas in order to come up with novel, creative solutions for problems and to generate ideas for future innovations. This type of group idea generation or brainstorming process has been studied in detail, and we have discovered much about the cognitive and social processes that underlie group idea generation. It appears that the brainstorming performance of groups is often hindered by various social and cognitive influences, but under the appropriate conditions, group idea exchange can be quite effective. In this article, we summarize the present state of knowledge, point out some significant gaps in our knowledge, and suggest a cognitive-social-motivational perspective to integrate the major findings and to guide future research in the area of group creativity and group idea generation.

Biculturalism Unpacked: Components, Measurement, Individual Differences, and Outcomes

Abstract: Cultural contact due to migration, globalization, travel, and the resulting cultural diversity, has led to growing numbers of bicultural individuals, which demands further research on this group. In this article, we introduce the concept of biculturalism and provide the foundation necessary for understanding literature on this topic, beginning research in this area, and recognizing biculturalism in everyday life. In unpacking the construct of biculturalism, we first define it along with its components and related constructs (e.g. acculturation strategies). Second, we compare and discuss various ways of measuring biculturalism (e.g. unidimensional versus bidimensional models). Third, we organize and summarize the limited literature on individual differences in bicultural identity, focusing on the construct of Bicultural Identity Integration (Benet-Martinez & Haritatos, 2005). Lastly, we review the possible outcomes resulting from biculturalism. I think of myself not as a unified cultural being but as a communion of different cultural beings. Due to the fact that I have spent time in different cultural environments, I have developed several cultural identities that diverge and converge according to the need of the moment. (Sparrow, 2000, 190) Most agree that our society is increasingly diverse and multicultural, but who is bicultural? Would a European American who eats Mexican food, speaks Spanish, and is married to a Mexican American be considered bicultural? What about an African American individual born and raised in the USA? Is he or she bicultural? In this article, we argue that there is more than one definition of biculturalism by reviewing the various definitions of biculturalism and presenting biculturalism within the context of acculturation. Because there is also more than one way to operationalize biculturalism, we compare and contrast the various methods of measuring it. Furthermore, we argue that there is more than one way to be bicultural and subsequently discuss variations among bicultural individuals, particularly the construct of Bicultural Identity Integration (BII). Finally, we argue for the potential benefits of biculturalism.

Social Constraints on Disclosure and Adjustment to Cancer

Abstract: This article introduces the concept of social constraints on disclosure, puts it in a theoretical framework, and examines how it can affect adjustment to major life stressors using the exemplar of cancer. Cancer is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. It is often life threatening, disfiguring, and unpredictable; hence, it can undermine people's basic and often positive beliefs and expectations about themselves, their future, and social relationships. For many people with cancer, it is important to come to terms psychologically with the illness – to make sense of or somehow accept the reality of it. People often do this by thinking about different aspects of the disease and its implications for their life, but also through socially processing, or talking about, their cancer-related thoughts, feelings, and concerns with others. When people experience social constraints on their disclosure of cancer-related thoughts and feelings, it can adversely affect how they think and talk about their illness, their coping behaviors, and psychological adjustment. In addition to discussing mechanisms and consequences of social constraints on disclosure, we discuss some of its determinants and future research directions.

Thwarting the Need to Belong: Understanding the Interpersonal and Inner Effects of Social Exclusion

Abstract: The need to belong is a powerful motivational basis for interpersonal behavior, and it is thwarted by social exclusion and rejection. Laboratory work has uncovered a destructive set of consequences of being socially excluded, such as increased aggressiveness and reduced helpfulness toward new targets. Rejected persons do, however, exhibit a cautious interest in finding new friends. Theory and intuition associate social exclusion with emotional distress, but laboratory research finds instead that the first response is a reduced sensitivity to pain and an emotional insensitivity that hampers empathy and may contribute to a variety of interpersonal behaviors. Self-regulation and intelligent thought are also impaired as a direct result of being rejected.

Attitude Certainty: A Review of Past Findings and Emerging Perspectives

Abstract: Attitude certainty, or the sense of conviction with which one holds one's attitude, has been the subject of considerable research attention. This article provides an overview of past, present, and future research on this topic. First, we review past work on attitude certainty, focusing on what has been learned about the antecedents and consequences of feeling certain or uncertain of one's attitude. Following this review, we examine emerging perspectives on attitude certainty. In particular, we describe recent work exploring the metacognitive appraisals that shape attitude certainty, the different meanings attitude certainty can have, and the dynamic effects of attitude certainty on attitude strength. Along the way, we also highlight important questions that have yet be answered about the certainty construct.

Critical Psychology: What It Is and What It Is Not

Abstract: Critical psychology alerts us to the limitations of mainstream research in the discipline, and it promises to put ‘social’ issues on the agenda in the whole of psychology. A starting point of the stance of critical psychological research is that the claims that psychologists make about human beings often seem to vanish almost as quickly as they are discovered. People, a group or culture do not behave or think like the model would predict, and, more importantly, we find that our awareness, our reflection on a process described by a psychologist changes that process. It is in the nature of human nature to change, to change as different linguistic resources, social practices, and representations of the self become available, and for human nature to change itself as people reflect on who they are and who they may become. That means that any attempt to fix us in place must fail. But it will only fail in such a way that something productive emerges from it if we do something different, and one place to do something different is in psychology. We need to step back and look at the images of the self, mind and behaviour that psychologists have produced, the types of practices they engage in, and the power those practices, those ‘technologies of the self’ have to set limits on change. When we appreciate this, we can start to look at what psychologists might do instead as part of a genuinely critical approach.

Is It Possible to Become Happier? (And If So, How?)

Abstract: Although some theory suggests that it is impossible to increase one’s subjective well-being (SWB), our ‘sustainable happiness model’ (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005) specifies conditions under which this may be accomplished. To illustrate the three classes of predictor in the model, we first review research on the demographic/circumstantial, temperament/personality, and intentional/experiential correlates of SWB. We then introduce the sustainable happiness model, which suggests that changing one’s goals and activities in life is the best route to sustainable new SWB. However, the goals and activities must be of certain positive types, must fit one’s personality and needs, must be practiced diligently and successfully, must be varied in their timing and enactment, and must provide a continued stream of fresh positive experiences. Research supporting the model is reviewed, including new research suggesting that happiness intervention effects are not just placebo effects. Everyone wants to be happy. Indeed, happiness may be the ultimate fundamental ‘goal’ that people pursue in their lives (Diener, 2000), a pursuit enshrined as an inalienable right in the US Declaration of Independence. The question of what produces happiness and wellbeing is the subject of a great deal of contemporary research, much of it falling under the rubric of ‘positive psychology’, an emerging field that also considers issues such as what makes for optimal relationships, optimal group functioning, and optimal communities. In this article, we first review some prominent definitions, theories, and research findings in the well-being literature. We then focus in particular on the question of whether it is possible to become lastingly happier in one’s life, drawing from our recent model of sustainable happiness. Finally, we discuss some recent experimental data suggesting that it is indeed possible to boost one’s happiness level, and to sustain that newfound level. A number of possible definitions of happiness exist. Let us start with the three proposed by Ed Diener in his landmark Psychological Bulletin

How Can People Be Induced to Willingly Change Their Behavior? The Path from Persuasive Communication to Binding Communication

Abstract: The present article has three main objectives. Its first purpose is to review some of the procedures pertaining to the 'free will' compliance paradigm. These procedures increase the likelihood that others will freely comply to one's requests (low-ball, teasing, foot-in-the door, touch, and 'you are free to' procedures). The second objective is to introduce a theory stemming from social psychology, namely, the theory of commitment. Finally, we wish to describe the binding communication approach that can be situated at the intersection of research conducted in both the fields of communication, more specifically in the domain of persuasive communication, and the fields of commitment and free will compliance. A project carried out to encourage school children to behave in a more environmentally friendly way will be described to illustrate the approach.

Personality, Affective Processing, and Self‐Regulation: Toward Process‐Based Views of Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Agreeableness

Abstract: Personality psychology seeks to be explanatory rather than merely descriptive, and the purpose of this review is to examine the viability of a cognitive processing approach to personality traits. In support of this goal, a multistage cognitive processing model is introduced. The review then seeks to link extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness to distinct processing operations. It is suggested that extraversion and neuroticism are systematically related to affective memory structures favoring positive and negative affect, respectively. On the other hand, it is suggested that agreeableness appears to be less closely linked to accessibility processes and more closely linked to affect and emotion control following activated hostile thoughts. Finally, recent data support developmental suggestions that individual differences in executive function appear to play an important role in moderating the neuroticism-distress relationship. In total, the review documents recent developments in understanding the processing basis of extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness.

Theorizing Hyphenated Selves: Researching Youth Development in and across Contentious Political Contexts

Abstract: In this article, we present social–psychological notions about critical consciousness, change, and power that we consider foundational to the study of youth under siege. Relying on Lewin's field theory and Du Bois’ dual consciousness, and critical psychology literature on sociopolitical understandings of conflict, we propose a new conceptual and theoretical framework that we call ‘hyphenated selves’ to better understand youth identity in and across contentious political contexts. Specifically, we report briefly on our own work with Muslim-American youth in the US post-9/11 and post–‘war on terror’ as a context from which we may reflect on a social psychology of youth identity and global conflict. At the same time, we want to think forward about critical methods for researching complicated subjectivities across politically and culturally contentious terrains.

Toward a Social Psychology of Culture and Globalization: Some Social Cognitive Consequences of Activating Two Cultures Simultaneously

Abstract: Despite the increased attention given to cultural phenomena in social psychology, the field has neglected issues related to globalization’s cultural impacts. Meanwhile, opinions in the debates over these issues are divided, polarized, and often motivated by political and ideological commitments. Globalization has brought symbols of diverse cultures together and provided ample opportunities for the simultaneous activation of two or more cultural representations. Using our research on the social cognitive consequences of activating two cultural representations simultaneously as an example, we argue for constructing a social psychology of globalization that offers nuanced understandings of people’s psychological responses to globalization. Although simultaneous activation of cultural representations does not determine an individual’s cultural identity, it enlarges the felt distinctions between different identity options and magnifies the effects of identity choice. Furthermore, in situations that emphasize appropriating intellectual resources from diverse cultures to foster creativity, simultaneous activation of cultural representations may facilitate creative performance.

Social Psychology and Multiculturalism

Abstract: Questions of multiculturalism give rise to lively and important debates in many countries and in many spheres of life. Diversity is considered desirable and necessary for the development of secure ethnic identities and positive intergroup relations, but is also challenged for being inequitable and a threat to social cohesion. After considering conceptions of multiculturalism and relevant country differences, the paper discusses social psychological research on multicultural attitudes and the effect of multiculturalism on intergroup relations. Subsequently, three issues are addressed that are central in debates about multiculturalism and that present additional topics for social psychological research. The first concerns the importance of intragroup processes, the second the nature of religious identity and Islam in particular, and the third issue relates to tolerance and civil liberties.

Cultural Shaping of Self, Emotion, and Well‐Being: How Does It Work?

Abstract: In this paper, we review the existent literature to propose that (i) different cultures have distinct views of self, which are instrumental in organizing daily routines, practices, and public meanings, (ii) the resulting behavioral environment shapes personal motivational propensities, (iii) the behavioral environment also carries information about normative expectations about what it is to be a ‘good’ person, and, as a consequence, (iv) culture has substantive influences on emotion, well-being, and health. In making this proposal, we highlight the distinction between personal motivational propensities and the society's normative expectations. The consequences of the cultural views of self on personal motivational propensities and those on the society's normative expectations may typically be concordant and, yet, the concordance can be disrupted especially at times of rapid social change. Directions for future research on culture, emotion, and well-being are discussed.

Dehumanization: A New Perspective

Abstract: Dehumanization has traditionally been understood as an extreme form of prejudice that enables violence and cruelty. Recent work indicates that it can also take subtle and everyday forms. We give an overview of early contributions to the psychological study of dehumanization before reviewing recent research on the attribution and denial of humanness. We emphasize our own research program, which proceeds from a theoretical analysis of two distinct senses of humanness, which when denied to others yield two forms of dehumanization. In one form, people are denied uniquely human attributes and likened to animals, and in the other, they are denied essentially human attributes and likened to machines. We discuss the ways in which these two forms of dehumanization are manifest in perceptions of individuals and groups, and speculate on the cognitive and motivational processes involved.

On the Emergence of Human Goal Pursuit: The Nonconscious Regulation and Motivation of Goals

Abstract: Experimental research in social psychology has discovered that human goal pursuit can emerge in the absence of conscious awareness. Whereas these goal-priming effects are commonly explained in terms of habitual automatic processes, recent studies shed new light on the matter. Building on this recent work, this paper attempts to promote a more comprehensive understanding and examination of the potential mechanisms that enable people to pursue their goals in a nonconscious fashion. Specifically, it addresses (i) the human capacity to pursue goals without awareness of the activation and operation of the goal, even when habits are inadequate; and (ii) the fundamental role of positive affect in nonconsciously modulating the motivation of goals and their pursuit. Self-reflection, and the ability to become consciously aware of oneself and one’s own behavior is a uniquely human trait. This exclusive ability gives reason to assume that people’s behavior is governed by ‘consciousness’ or some other type of inner agent such as ‘the will’ or ‘the self ’. Consciousness, it is argued, plays a pivotal role in goal setting, striving, and attainment, and should especially be important when our habits established by practice do not work to attain our goals. The concept of consciousness thus forms a core aspect of modern views on the role of motivational and cognitive processes in the regulation of social behavior. Whereas the causal status of consciousness in human behavior is often taken for granted, over the last 25 years or so several lines of experimentation have discovered that our behavior is often the product of nonconscious cognitive processes – that is, processes that do not require conscious intention and attention in order to occur. We learned that impressions of people are influenced by contextual factors of which we are unaware (Bargh & Pietromonaco, 1982; Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977; Srull & Wyer, 1979). Subsequently, we were confronted with the fact that social stereotypes that we have about others are activated automatically (Devine, 1989; Macrae, Milne, & Bodenhausen, 1994), and that these automatically

A Brief History of Dissonance Theory

Abstract: Prior to the construction of the theory of cognitive dissonance, the dominant view in American experimental psychology held that behavior, including verbal attitude statements, was learned and shaped by rewards and/or punishments. Dissonance theory took a surprisingly different view by stating that behaviors and reasons for engaging in them could be strengthened by minimizing the very rewards or threatened punishments that produced the behaviors. Many hundreds of experimental studies later, the main argument of dissonance theory is well supported, although researchers disagree about the necessary and sufficient conditions. The present paper traces the major lines of research, including contributions from around the world, and the major controversies among some of the researchers.

Dynamic Social Impact: A Theory of the Origins and Evolution of Culture

Abstract: Dynamic social impact theory suggests that culture is created and shaped by local social influence as defined by four phenomena: (i) clustering, or regional differences in cultural elements; (ii) correlation, or emergent associations between elements; (iii) consolidation, or a reduction in variance; and (iv) continuing diversity. This article describes dynamic social impact theory and its propositions and reviews research supporting its predictions using a variety of methodologies and several types of cultural elements. This research suggests that cultures can be created and changed from the bottom-up through everyday communication with neighbors, friends, and coworkers. Attributes that are more important, observable, and demonstrable and less heritable may be more likely to spread and differentiate cultures than others.

Majority and Minority Influence

Abstract: The study of minority influence has advanced considerably since the late 1960s when Moscovici's pioneering efforts brought the minority's role in the process of persuasion and social influence to the forefront. Moscovici's (1980) insight that the underlying processes of majority and minority influence are quite different has been supported, but the steady pace of research has uncovered various unanticipated findings not easily explained by his conversion theory. In this review, we track recent developments and debates in the field, and consider some major explanatory models of minority influence and their differential postulates regarding cognitive processing and attitude change. We pay particular attention to Crano's (2001) leniency contract model, which details the specific conditions under which majorities and minorities impart influence. Finally, we advance some novel postulates regarding the persuasive impact of out-group minorities.

Opting out or Pushed off the Edge? The Glass Cliff and the Precariousness of Women's Leadership Positions

Abstract: The glass cliff refers to the phenomenon whereby women are overrepresented in leadership roles associated with high risk and an increased chance of failure. Research into the glass cliff has focused on documenting the existence of the phenomenon and understanding the psychological processes that contribute to the appointment of women to precarious positions. This paper summarises this research and extends it by examining the implications that glass cliff positions have, both for the women who occupy them and for the organisations in which they exist. The gender-stress-disidentification model suggests that glass cliff positions are inherently stressful, and lead women to experience a reduced sense of organisational identification. This, in turn, has important implications for organisations in terms of reduced commitment and increased turnover. Taken together, the research presented here offers an alternative analysis of women's increasing disaffection with the workplace, which takes into account gender differences in workplace experience.

Self and Attitude Strength Parallels: Focus on Accessibility

Abstract: Numerous parallels exist between the literatures on attitudes and the self, yet they are generally considered in isolation. In this paper, we focus on some parallels with respect to the concept of self-strength – that is, aspects of self-esteem and the self-concept that impart the qualities of durability and impactfulness. Using research on attitude strength as our foundation, we first introduce some relevant strength variables such as accessibility, certainty, and ambivalence. Then, as a case study we review existing research on self-view accessibility. Our review is organized based on parallel findings on attitude accessibility in order to demonstrate the utility of this approach. By considering research on attitude strength, we are able to organize, and in some cases reinterpret, previous self-related findings, make new predictions regarding the self, and increase the precision of predictions. We believe that this approach can foster integration between the areas of attitudes and the self, advancing theory and research on both.

The Impact of Higher Education on Egalitarian Attitudes and Values: Contextual and Cultural Determinants

Abstract: In the present paper, we revisit the question of the impact of higher education on students’ egalitarian attitudes and values Research in this domain indicates that students tend to become more egalitarian and tolerant with higher education, but there are also differences depending on academic disciplines Two main hypotheses aiming to explain why students’ egalitarian attitudes differ as a function of academic disciplines are discussed: self-selection and socialization Previous research yielding results in support of each of these hypotheses is reviewed After pointing to some inconsistencies in the results, we consider recent research suggesting that cultural norms, namely, individualism and collectivism, may moderate the impact of higher education on attitudes Individual factors, such as self-selection, seem to play a more prominent role than collective factors, such as socialization, in individualist cultures (eg North America, Australia), where most research has been conducted In contrast, socialization appears to have a stronger impact than individual factors in collectivist cultures (eg Eastern Europe, Africa)

Eavesdropping on Health: A Naturalistic Observation Approach for Social Health Research

Abstract: This article provides an overview of a novel ecological momentary assessment method called the electronically activated recorder or EAR. The EAR is a portable audio recorder that periodically records snippets of ambient sounds from participants’ momentary environments. In tracking moment-to-moment ambient sounds, the EAR yields an acoustic log of a person’s day as it naturally unfolds. As a naturalistic observation method, it provides an observer’s account of daily life and is optimized for the assessment of audible aspects of participants’ daily social environments and interactions. The article discusses the EAR method conceptually and methodologically and identifies three important ways in which it can enrich social health research. Specifically, it can help cross-validate research findings independent of self-reports, calibrate psychological measures against behavioral markers of real-world social functioning, and further our understanding of the role that people’s mundane social interactions and language use play in coping and health.

Climates Create Cultures

Abstract: The circumstances in which societies adapt their cultural values and practices to cold, temperate, and hot climates include the availability of money to cope with climate. Country-level studies have shown that feeling good, doing good, altruistic volunteering, intrinsic work motivation, cooperative enculturation, and democratic leadership are least prevalent in poorer countries with more demanding climates, moderately prevalent in poor and rich countries with temperate climates, and most prevalent in richer countries with more demanding climates. The common denominator is that inhabitants of lower-income countries in more demanding climates emphasize survival values at the expense of self-expression values, whereas the inhabitants of higher-income countries in more demanding climates emphasize self-expression values at the expense of survival values. These findings have practical implications for the cultural consequences of global warming and economic growth, and for the effectiveness of financing for human development.

Health‐Related Risk Perception and Decision‐Making: Lessons from the Study of Motives in Social Psychology

Abstract: Much research in the decision sciences has shown that risk perception and decision-making are influenced not only by cognitive processes – such as the use of statistical ‘rules of thumb’– but also by motives such as loss aversion, ambiguity aversion, and regret aversion. The field of social psychology has long been interested in a variety of motives that influence self-judgment, social perception, and interpersonal relations. These include, among others, self-enhancement, social comparison, predictability/control, favorable self-presentation, effective resource management, preparedness for bad news, goal attainment, and existential meaning. We suggest that more attention to these motives would greatly strengthen our understanding of how people think about risk and how they make decisions. In this article, we consider the influence of motives on risk perception and decision-making in the context of health outcomes. We argue that theories relating to these various motives (e.g., social comparison theory) can be greatly enhanced by testing them in the context of health-related risk perception and decision-making.

New Frontiers for the Five-Factor Model: A Preview of the Literature

Abstract: The Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality traits has been widely adopted and applied to a diverse set of issues in psychology and related disciplines. In this article, we identify a number of unresolved questions and propose new directions for research using the FFM. In clinical psychology, research is needed on the optimal ways to utilize personality assessments in psychotherapy. Acculturation studies are crucial for an understanding of the origins of national differences in trait levels. The large literatures on personality and on the self should be better integrated, adding a process perspective to trait psychology. Personality psychology should begin to transcend the individual, examining the consequences of aggregate personality traits in dyads, organizations, and nations. Applications of the FFM appear to be limited only by the creativity and industry of researchers.

Networks of meaning: intergroup relations, cultural worldviews, and knowledge activation principles.

Abstract: In this article, we bring advances in the fields of social cognition, personality, and culture to bear on the topic of intergroup relations. Specifically, principles of knowledge activation (Higgins, 1996), and of the architecture of knowledge networks (Cervone, 2005; Mischel & Shoda, 1995) are applied to understanding how cultural groups develop divergent worldviews. We discuss these principles within a recently proposed model of culture and person dynamics, the Cultural Cognitive-Affective Processing System (Mendoza-Denton & Mischel, 2007). It is argued that the underlying psychological principles that govern knowledge acquisition and activation may be universal, but that the manifestations of these processes are culture specific. More precisely, culture impacts the availability, applicability, and accessibility of knowledge, as well as the organizational relationships among constructs. Together, these processes give rise to complex networks of meaning that, despite diverging across cultures, can nevertheless be communicated and understood by non-natives of that culture.

Personality and the Pursuit of Happiness

Abstract: Although people pursue life outcomes because they believe that these outcomes will make them happy, research shows that external life circumstances have a surprisingly small effect on happiness and subjective well-being. In contrast, personality traits and other stable factors appear to play a more important role in happiness. Happiness is heritable, stable over time, and moderately to strongly associated with personality characteristics. Empirical support for these conclusions is reviewed, and more recent evidence that challenges strong interpretations of personality effects is discussed. Although the effects of personality are robust, long-term levels of happiness can and do change.

A Framework for Explaining Aggression Involving Groups

Abstract: Aggression involving groups (versus individuals) can be particularly severe (e.g., hazings). Although an impressive amount of experimental research on the aggression of individuals exists, relatively less experimental research on aggression involving groups exists. We use existing theories of aggression and the available research to present a framework of aggression when groups are involved. We propose a provisional model that suggests that the extent of aggression to be committed depends on the composition of both source (i.e., perpetrators – group or individual) and target (i.e., victims – group or individual) entities. Evidence suggests that groups commit and receive more aggression than individuals. We propose that accessible hostile thoughts and the experience of negative affect contribute to the target effect (i.e., more aggression committed toward groups versus individuals), whereas disinhibition processes and arousal contribute to the source effect (i.e., more aggression committed by groups versus individuals). Our framework can guide future theory and research on aggression involving groups.